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Chapter One
The Human body: An
Orientation

Anatomy is the study of the structure of the
body parts and their relationships to each
other. Deals with body parts.
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Physiology is the study of the function of the
body parts.
Topics of Anatomy
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Gross Anatomy is the
study of structures
large enough to be
seen with the naked
eye.

Microscopic anatomy is the study of
structures that are too small to be seen with
the naked eye.
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Ex.
Cytology= the study of cells
Histology= the study of tissues
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Specialized Branches
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1. Pathology= The study of structural
changes due to diseases.
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2. Radiology=The study of the body with the
help of x-ray.
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3. Molecular biology= The study of
molecular molecules.
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4. Radiography (X-Rays)-the use of X-rays to produce images
of the internal structures of the human body. This technique is
excellent for discovering fractures; however, organs often
appear as a blur on X-rays.
5. Computed Tomography Scanning (CT Scan)-the use of Xrays and computers to produce 3- dimensional images of body
structures. It is used to detect kidney stones and tumors.
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6. Xenon CT-CT brain scan enhanced with Xenon gas which
allows for tracing blood flow. This is used to identify strokes.
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7. Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)-an instrument used to
examine blood vessels before and after a dye has been
injected into the bloodstream. This is used to detect blocked
blood vessels.
8. Positron Emission Tomography (PET)-the use of radioactive
particles to produce images of internal organs. This can provide
some indication of organ function as well as structure.
9. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)-the use of radio waves
and magnets to produce 3-dimensional images of internal
structures. It is not used on pregnant women or individuals that
have a pacemaker due to the use of magnets.
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10. Dynamic Spatial Reconstruction(DSR)-specialized X-ray
machine that produces 3-dimensional moving images of
internal structures. This is excellent for examining the heart,
blood vessels, and the lungs.
11. Ultrasound-sound waves are forced into the body where
they are reflected by various organs and tissues. These
reflected sound waves are used to produce images of internal
structures.
a. Sonogram-the images produced by an ultrasound.
b. These are often used to follow the development of a fetus
during pregnancy.
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-tomy
dorse
append
-stasis
cardipleurcran
= cutting
= back
= to hang
= standing still
= heart
= rib
= helmet
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pariet
homeo
peri
nas
orb
meta
-logy
pelv
= wall
= same
= around
= nose
= circle
= change
= the study of
= basin
Medical Careers
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Epidemiology
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ActivitiesInvestigate and describe the causes and distribution of diseases, disabilities, and
other health outcomes. They also develop methods of disease prevention and control.
OutlookFaster-than-average-job growth
Median Income$56,670 per year in 2006
Work Context & ConditionsUsually work indoors, in a laboratory or university. Accuracy
and follow through are very important. Biological and medical scientists usually work
regular hours in offices or laboratories and usually are not exposed to unsafe or unhealthy
conditions.
Minimum Education RequirementsMaster's Degree
SkillsCritical Thinking, Active Listening, Writing, Time Management, Mathematics, Active
Learning, Complex Problem Solving, Reading Comprehension, Speaking, Science
AbilitiesOral Expression, Deductive Reasoning, Problem Sensitivity, Written
Comprehension, Inductive Reasoning, Written Expression, Oral Comprehension
Nuclear Medicine
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Nuclear medicine technologists operate cameras that detect
and map the radioactive drug in a patient’s body to create
diagnostic images. After explaining test procedures to patients,
technologists prepare a dosage of the radiopharmaceutical and
administer it by mouth, injection, inhalation, or other means.
They position patients and start a gamma scintillation camera,
or “scanner,” which creates images of the distribution of a
radiopharmaceutical as it localizes in, and emits signals from,
the patient’s body. The images are produced on a computer
screen or on film for a physician to interpret.
Levels of Structural Organization
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Atoms
Molecules
Cells
Tissue
Organ
Organ System
Organism
How the Body is Made Up
Body
Systems
Organs & Fluids
Cells and Fluids
Chemical Elements
Chemical Elements
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Smallest building blocks of life
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What is the most important chemical element in
bones?
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Other facts:
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Calcium – essential for bone strength
Iron – major component of blood cells
Silicon – growth and development of bones, cartilage and
tissue
The Periodic Table
Water Molecule
Just like body systems, chemical elements have to
work together.
Oxygen and Hydrogen combine or work together to
make a water molecule.
The body is made up of…
…Chemical elements, which bond together to
form…
…Cells, which come together to form…
…Organs, which work together to create…
…Body systems…
…Which in turn is the HUMAN BODY
Overview
The human Body
Body Parts
Chemical Elements
Organs
Cells
Fluids
Work together to form: BODY SYSTEM
Our body systems work together to keep us healthy and help us live
Internal Body Parts (Organs)
Maintaining Life
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A. Necessary Life functions
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1. Maintain separate internal and external
boundaries.
2. Movement.
3. Responsiveness.
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A. Seek water for thirst
– B. Move hand from hot stove.
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4. Digestion.
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5. Metabolism.
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6. Excretion.
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Obtaining energy from food and assimilating new
molecules
A. Rid body of toxic waste.
7. Reproduction.
8. Growth.
9. Respiration
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A. Using O2 to release energy from food.
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B. Survival Needs
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1. Nutrients needed for chemical reactions used for energy
and cell building.
2. Oxygen needed for breakdown of glucose.
3. Water needed for secretions, excretions, metabolism,
and transport.
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4. Normal body temperature needed for chemical reactions.
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Most abundant substance in body.
Heat=The product of metabolic processes
5. Pressure: needed for gas exchange in the lungs
(atmospheric pressure), and blood pressure.
Homeostasis
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A. Homeostasis=The ability of the body to
maintain a constant internal environment,
regardless of environmental changes.
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1. Each cell of the body is surrounded by a small
amount of fluid, and the normal functions of each
cell depend on the maintenance of its fluid
environment with in a narrow range of conditions.
2. Conditions are called variables. (values that
change)
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A. Ex. Body temperature
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B. Components:
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1. Variable: The factor or event that can change.
2. Receptor: Structure that monitors changes in
the environment and sends info to control center.
3. Control center: Structures that determines the
set point for a variable, analyzes input, and
coordinates an appropriate response.
4. Effector: Structures that carries out the
response directed by the control center.
C.
Example of homeostasis:
1. The excretory system makes sure that
toxins are not surrounding a cell. It will
make sure it is taken away through the
blood stream to the kidneys to be filtered
and exit the body.
2. Disruption of this process can result in
disease or death.
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C. Negative feedback:
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1. Most homeostatic controls are negative feedback.
2. Changes in a way that causes the initial factor to change
(opposite).
3. Usually the nervous and endocrine systems are involved
in negative feedback mechanisms.
4. the purpose is to prevent sudden, severe changes in the
body.
5. End result=body corrects condition that is occurring
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D. An example of negative feedback:
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Too cold=body shivers, muscles contract, vessels constrict.
Too hot=body sweats, vessels dilate, fast heart beat.
Too much sugar in blood=body produces insulin, insulin
breaks down sugar.
Too little sugar in blood=body produces glucagon, triggers
liver to break up long starch molecules into sugar that go
back into bloodstream.
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D. Positive feedback
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1. Causes a change in the same direction as the
original change. Ex: Childbirth
Ex. Of Positive Feedback = blood
clotting
Ex. Of Postive feedback = arthritis,
lupus.
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1. The immune system works too good and
healthy tissue is destroyed.
The language of Anatomy
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A. Anatomical Position
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1. Frontal
Plane=Separates front
and back.
2. Sagittal
Plane=Separates left
from right.
3. Transverse
plane=Separates top
from bottom.
4. Oblique section – cuts
made diagonally
Directional Terms
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4. Anterior=
Ventral=front
5. Posterior= Dorsal=
Back
6. Lateral=The sides
7. Medial=Middle
Relative Positions
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1. proximal= nearest to body attachment
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Closer to the origin of the body or point of
attachment of a limb to the body trunk.
Ex. The elbow is proximal to the wrist.
2. distal= furthest from body attachment
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Further from the origin of a body part or the point
of attachment of a limb to the body trunk.
Ex. The knee is distal to the thigh.
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3. superficial=toward the surface
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Ex. The skin is superficial to the muscle.
4. deep= toward the core of the body
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Ex. The lungs are deep to the skin.
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5. prone=lie face down
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6. supine=lie face up
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Remember this by saying: “soup in navel”
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7. Superior=above
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Toward the head or upper part of the body.
Ex. The head is superior to the abdomen
8. Inferior=below
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Away from the head or toward the lower part of
the body.
Ex. The navel is inferior to the chin.
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9. Anterior=Ventral
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Toward the front of the body.
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Ex. The breastbone is anterior to the spine.
10. Posterior=Dorsal
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Toward or at the back of the body; behind.
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Ex. The heart is posterior to the breastbone.
True or False
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1. The mouth is superior to the nose.
2. The stomach is inferior to the diaphragm.
3. The trachea is anterior to the spinal cord.
4. The heart is medial to the lungs.
5. The hand is proximal to the elbow.
6. Blood in deep blood vessels give color to
the skin.
Answers
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
F
T
T
T
F
F
Quiz on relative positions:
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2.
3.
4.
5.
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7.
8.
The elbow is _________ to the fingers.
The sternum is _______ to the ribs.
The feet are ________ to the head.
The wrist is ________ to the shoulder.
The stomach is more _______ then your skin.
The eyes are ______ to your nose.
the neck is _______ to the hips.
the skin is ___________ to the fat layer.
Answers:
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
proximal
medial
inferior
distal
deep
lateral
superior
superficial
Where will you find the following
afflictions?
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
carpal tunnel syndrome
bucal abcess
digital dislocation
mammary tumor
nasal hemorrhage
abdominal cancer
sacral fracture
Answers
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
wrist
cheek
finger
breast
nose
stomach
tailbone
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B. Regions:
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1. Axial= includes the head, neck and trunk.
2. Appendicular= consists of the upper and lower
limbs.
Regional Terms
Regional Terms
Abdominal-the portion of the trunk below the diaphragm and above the
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pelvis.
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Acromial- point of the should
Antebrachial- forearm
Antecubital- front of elbow
Axillary-armpit area.
Brachial-proximal portion of the upper arm.
Buccal-cheek region.
Carpal-wrist.
Calcaneal- heel
Cephalic-head.
Cervical-neck region.
Costal-near the ribs.
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Cranial-skull.
Crural- leg
Cutaneous-skin.
Digital- fingers or toes
Dorsum- back
Femoral- thigh
Frontal-forehead.
Gluteal-buttock region.
Hallux- toe
Inguinal- groin
Lumbar-lower back.
Mammary-breast region
Manus- hand.
Occipital- back of head
Oral-mouth.
Orbital-eyes.
Otic-ears.
Palmar-palms of the hand.
Patellar- Anterior of knee
Pectoral-chest region.
Pedal- foot
Perineal- around anus
Peroneal- side of leg
Plantar-sole of the foot.
Popliteal- back of knee
Pubic- genital area
Sacral- between hips
Sternal-midline of the thorax region.
Sural- calf
Tarsal-instep of the foot.
Umbilical-navel region.
Vertebral-pertaining to the backbone
Quiz: What region of the body will you
find the following?
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
leg? ______________
foot? ______________
gential region? ______________
toes? ______________
wrist? _____________
fingers? ______________
knee cap area? ___________
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8. ankle? _____________
9. thumb? ___________
10. palm? _______________
Answers:
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
crural
pedal
pubic
digital
carpal
digital
patella
8. tarsal
9. pollex
10. palmar
Quiz: What region of the body will you
find the following conditions?
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Pelvic inflammation?___________
Acromial bruise? ___________
Axillary rash? __________
Cervical vertebrae fracture? ________
Antebrachial contusion? ___________
Antecubital ringworm? ____________
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7. Oral infection? _________
8. A nasal blockage? __________
9. A brachial cut? ____________
10. Abdominal pain? ___________
Answers:
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
pelvis
shoulder point
arm pit
neck
forearm
front of elbow
mouth
8. nose
9. arm
10. abdomen
Quiz: What do the following regional
terms mean?
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Perineal? _________________
Plantar? _________________
Femoral? ________________
Brachial? __________________
Calcaneal? _________________
Dorsum? __________________
Lumbar? _________________
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8. Popliteal? ____________
9. Olecranial? ______________
10. Gluteal? ______________
11. Sacral? _____________
12. Sural? ________________
Answers:
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
anus or genitalia
sole
thigh
arm
heel
back
loin
8. back of
knee
9. back of
elbow
10. butt
11. between hips
12. calf
Quiz: Name the following regions of
the body.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
umbilical ___________
thoracic ___________
frontal ____________
sternal ___________
mammary ___________
mental _____________
buccal _____________
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8. coxal ____________
9. inguinal ____________
10. orbital _____________
Answers:
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
navel
chest
forehead
breastbone
breast
chin
cheek
8. hip
9. groin
10. eye
Body Cavities
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A. Body cavities are
spaces within the body
that are closed to the
outside and contain the
internal organs.
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1. Dorsal cavity houses
the cranial (skull, brain)
cavity and the vertebral
(vertebral column and
spinal cord) cavity.
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2. Ventral cavity contains
the thoracic (lungs, heart,
mediastinum) and
abdominopelvic (abdominal
and pelvic organs) cavities.
Abdomino= stomach, liver,
spleen, gallbladder, small
and large intestines.
Pelvic= reproductive
organs.
Other Body Cavities
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3. Oral and digestive cavities=mouth through the
digestive system to the anus. Teeth , tongue.
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4. Nasal cavity within the nose.
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5. Orbital cavities house the eyes.
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6. Middle ear cavities. Bones of the ear.
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7. Synovial cavities found in all moveable
joints.
Membranes
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A. Serous
membranes=cover the
inner walls of the
ventral cavity and outer
surfaces of organs.
B. Parietal
membranes=lines the
body cavities walls.
C. Visceral
membranes=covers the
outer surface of organs.
Serous Membranes – there are 3 types
of serous membranes each containing
a 3 part structure:
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1. Parietal membrane – lines the cavity wall
2. Parietal space – a thin cavity filled with serous fluid that
lubricates
3. Visceral membrane – covers or surrounds the organ
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3 types
4. Pericardium – serous membranes surrounding the heart
5. Pleura – serous membranes surrounding the lungs
6. Peritoneum – serous membranes surrounding
Abdominopelvic
Pericardial Membranes
Example of lungs:
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Serous Membranes of the LUNGS:
1. The membrane on the surface of the lung is
called visceral pleura.
2. The membrane that lines the cavity in which
the lungs are located is called parietal pleura.
3. The space between these two membranes is
called the pleural cavity, and it is filled with serous
fluid.
Example of the heart:
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Serous Membranes of the HEART: ,
1. The membrane on the surface of the heart is
called visceral pericardium.
2. The membrane that lines the cavity in which
the heart is located is called parietal pericardium.
3. The space between these two membranes is
called the pericardial cavity, and it is filled with
serous fluid
Example of the abdomen:
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Serous Membranes of the ABDOMINAL ORGANS:
1. The membrane on the surface of the liver,
stomach, etc. is called visceral peritoneum.
2. The membrane that lines the abdominal cavity
is called parietal peritoneum.
3. The space between these two membranes is
called the peritoneal cavity, and it is filled with
serous fluid.
Paritoneal Cavity
Pleural and Pericardial Cavity
Abdominopelvic Regions
Abdominopelvic Quadrants
The Systems
Integumentary System
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1. Forms the external body covering.
Regulates body temperature.
2. Protects deeper tissue from injury.
3. Synthesizes vitamin D.
4. Site of cutaneous receptors such as pain
and pressure.
5.Contains the skin, hair, nails, sweat and oil
glands, sensory glands.
Skin
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Nutrients and oxygen
are distributed by the
blood
Metabolic wastes are
eliminated by the
urinary and respiratory
systems
Integumentary Video
Skeletal System
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1. Protects and supports the body systems.
2. Provides a framework the muscles use to
cause movement.
3. Blood cells are formed within bones.
4. Stores minerals.
5. Contains the bones, ligaments, and
cartilage.
Muscular System
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1. Allows manipulation of the environment,
locomotion, and facial expression.
2. Maintains posture.
3. Produces heat.
Cat Neck and Chest Muscles
Muscle Cells
Skeletal and Muscular Video
Nervous System
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1. Fast-acting control system of the body.
2. Responds to internal and external
changes by activating appropriate muscles
and glands.
3. Contain the brain, spinal cord, nerves,
and sense organs.
Nervous Video
Endocrine System
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1. Glands secrete hormones that regulate
processes such as growth, reproduction, and
nutrient use by the body cells.
2. Contain the pituitary gland, thyroid,
parathyroid, adrenal glands, pancreas,
ovaries, testes, pineal gland, thymus gland.
The Endocrine System
Endocrine Video
Cardiovascular System
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1. Blood vessels transport blood which
carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients,
and waste.
2. The heart pumps blood.
3. Contain the heart, arteries, veins,
capillaries, and blood.
The Heart/Blood Vessels
Blood Cells
Red blood cells transport
oxygen around the body and
white blood cells help protect
us against infections.
White Blood Cell
Red Blood Cells
Cardiovascular Video
Lymphatic/Immunity System
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1. Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and
returns it to the blood.
2. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream.
3. House white blood cells (lymphocytes).
4. The immune response mounts the attack against
foreign substances in the body.
5. Contain the lymphatic vessels, fluid, nodes,
thymus gland and spleen.
Lymphatic System
Lymphatic System
Respiratory System
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1. Keeps blood constantly supplied with
oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.
2. The gaseous exchanges occur through
the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
3. Contain the lungs, nasal cavities, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi.
Respiratory System
Digestive System
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1. Breaks down food into absorbable units
that enter the blood for distribution to body
cells.
2. Contain the mouth, salivary glands,
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, liver,
gallbladder, pancreas, small and large
intestines.
Liver Cells
Digestive System
Urinary System
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1. Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the
body.
2. Regulates water, electrolytes, and acidbase balance of the blood.
3. contain the kidneys, ureters, urinary
bladder, and urethra
Urinary System
Reproductive Systems
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1. Overall function of production of offspring.
2. Testis produce sperm and male sex
hormones. Ducts and glands aid in delivery
of sperm to the female reproductive tract.
3. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex
hormones. Structures serve as sites for
fertilization and development of a fetus.
Mammary glands produce milk for the
newborn.
Reproductive Systems