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Chapter 1
Lecture
PowerPoint
Introduction to
Human Anatomy &
Physiology
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Anatomy and Physiology
• Anatomy – study of structure
(Greek – “a cutting up”)
• Physiology – study of function
(Greek – “relationship to nature”)
“Structure dictates function.”
2
Levels of Organization
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Subatomic particles
Atom
Organ system
Molecule
Macromolecule
Organ
Organelle
Organism
Cell
Tissue
1.3: Levels of Organization
Chemical
• Atoms
– made up of
subatomic particles
• Molecules
– 2 or more atoms
• Macromolecules
– small molecules
joined together
4
1.3: Levels of Organization
Cellular
• Macromolecules
combine to form cells
• Basic structural and
functional unit of the
body
5
1.3: Levels of Organization
Tissue
• Group of cells
working together to
perform a function
• 4 basic types
–
–
–
–
epithelial (epi)
connective tissue (CT)
muscle (mm)
nerve (n)
6
1.3: Levels of Organization
Organ
• 2 or more tissues
joined together with a
specific function and
shape
7
1.3: Levels of Organization
Systems
• Related organs with a
common function
• 11 systems
8
Organ Systems
Integumentary system
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• Components
– skin
– hair
– glands
• Functions
– protection
– regulates body
temperature
– eliminates waste
– vitamin D
– sensations
9
Organ Systems
Skeletal system
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• Components
– Bones
– Joints
– Cartilage
• Functions
–
–
–
–
–
Support
Protection
Body movement
Produces blood cells
Stores minerals & fats
10
Organ Systems
Muscular system
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• Components
– skeletal muscles
• Functions
– body movement
– posture
– generates heat
11
Organ Systems
Nervous system
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• Components
–
–
–
–
brain
spinal cord
nerves
special sense organs
• Functions
– action potentials
(nerve impulses)
– detects, interprets, and
responds to changes
in environment
12
Organ Systems
Endocrine system
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• Components
– hormone-producing
glands and cells
• Functions
– regulates body
activities
13
Organ Systems
Cardiovascular system
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• Components
– blood
– heart
– blood vessels
• Functions
– pumps blood
– carries O2 and nutrients to
cells and wastes away
– regulates temperature,
acid-base balance, and
H 2O
14
Organ Systems
Lymphatic system
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• Components
–
–
–
–
–
lymph fluid & vessels
spleen
thymus
lymph nodes
tonsils
• Functions
– transports dietary
lipids
– protection
15
Organ Systems
Respiratory system
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• Components
–
–
–
–
–
lungs
pharynx
larynx
trachea
bronchial tree
• Functions
– exchange of gases
– acid-base balance
– sound production
16
Organ Systems
Digestive system
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• Components
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
mouth
pharynx
esophagus
stomach
small intestines
large intestines
salivary glands
liver
gallbladder
pancreas
• Functions
– breakdown of food
– absorption of food
– eliminates wastes
17
Organ Systems
Urinary system
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• Components
–
–
–
–
kidneys
ureters
urinary bladder
urethra
• Functions
– eliminates waste
– regulates blood
composition & volume
– acid-base balance
18
Organ Systems
Reproductive system
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• Components
– ovaries
– testes
– associated structures
• Functions
– produce gametes
– hormone regulation of
reproduction
19
1.3: Levels of Organization
Organism
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1.4: Characteristics of Life (10)
• Movement – change in position; motion
• Responsiveness – reaction to a change
• Growth – increase in body size; no change in shape
• Reproduction – production of new organisms and new cells
• Respiration – obtaining oxygen; removing carbon
dioxide; releasing energy from foods
•Differentiation – unspecialized to specialized
21
Characteristics of Life Continued
• Digestion – breakdown of food substances into
simpler forms
• Absorption – passage of substances through membranes
and into body fluids
• Circulation – movement of substances in body fluids
• Assimilation – changing of absorbed substances
into chemically different forms
• Excretion – removal of wastes produced by metabolic
reactions
22
1.5: Maintenance of Life
• Life depends on five (5) environmental factors:
• Water
• Food
• Oxygen
• Heat
• Pressure
23
Requirements of Organisms
• Water
- most abundant substance in body
- required for metabolic processes
- required for transport of substances
- regulates body temperature
• Food
- provides necessary nutrients
- supplies energy
- supplies raw materials
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Requirements of Organisms
• Oxygen (gas)
- one-fifth of air
- used to release energy from nutrients
• Heat
- form of energy
- partly controls rate of metabolic reactions
• Pressure
- application of force on an object
- atmospheric pressure – important for breathing
- hydrostatic pressure – keeps blood flowing
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Homeostasis*
* Maintaining of a stable internal environment
• “physiological normal”
• dynamic
• involves maintaining
the volume and
composition of body
fluids
– intracellular (ICF)
– extracellular (ECF)
26
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
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• components
– receptor
• monitors changes
• input to control
center
– control center
• evaluates input and
generates output
– effector
• receives output from
control center
• produces a response
27
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
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• continually disrupted by internal and
external environments
• balance regulated by
– nervous
• action potentials
• rapid
– endocrine
• hormones
• slow
28
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
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Control center
The hypothalamus
detects the deviation
from the set point and
signals effector organs.
Receptors
Thermoreceptors
send signals to the
control center.
Stimulus
Body temperature
rises above normal.
Effectors
Skin blood vessels
dilate and sweat glands
secrete.
Response
Body heat is lost to
surroundings, temperature
drops toward normal.
too high
Normal body
temperature
37°C (98.6°F)
too low
Stimulus
Body temperature
drops below normal.
Receptors
Thermoreceptors
send signals to the
control center.
Response
Body heat is conserved,
temperature rises toward normal.
Effectors
Skin blood
vessels constrict
and sweat glands
remain inactive.
Control center
The hypothalamus
detects the deviation
from the set point and
signals effector organs.
Effectors
Muscle
activity
generates
body heat.
If body temperature
continues to drop,
control center signals
muscles to contract
Involuntarily.
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Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
• There are two (2) types:
• Negative feedback mechanisms
• Positive feedback mechanisms
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Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
Negative feedback
summary:
• Prevents sudden, severe changes in
the body
• Reduces the actions of the effectors
• Corrects the set point
• Causes opposite of bodily disruption to
occur, i.e. the ‘negative’
• Limits chaos in the body by creating
stability
• Most common type of feedback loop
• Examples: body temperature, blood
pressure & glucose regulation
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Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
Positive feedback summary:
• Increases (accelerates) the actions of
the body
• Produces more instability in the body
• Produces more chaos in the body
• There are only a few types necessary for
our survival
• Positive feedback mechanisms are
short-lived
• Controls only infrequent events that do
not require continuous adjustments
• Considered to be the uncommon loop
• Examples: blood clotting and child birth
32
Animation:
Positive and Negative Feedback
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33
1.6: Organization
of the Human Body
• Body cavities
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Cranial cavity
Cranial cavity
Vertebral canal
Vertebral canal
Thoracic
cavity
Thoracic cavity
Right pleural
cavity
Mediastinum
Left pleural cavity
Thoracic cavity
Pericardial
cavity
Diaphragm
Diaphragm
Abdominal
cavity
Abdominal
cavity
Abdominopelvic
cavity
Abdominopelvic
cavity
Pelvic cavity
Pelvic cavity
(b)
(a)
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Thoracic & Abdominal
Serous Membranes
• Visceral layer – covers an organ
• Parietal layer – lines a cavity or body wall
Thoracic Membranes
• Visceral pleura
• Parietal pleura
• Visceral pericardium
• Parietal pericardium
Abdominopelvic Membranes
• Parietal peritoneum
• Visceral peritoneum
35
Thoracic Serous Membranes
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Plane of
section
Vertebra
Spinal cord
Mediastinum
Azygos v.
Aorta
Left lung
Esophagus
Right lung
Rib
Right atrium
of heart
Left ventricle
of heart
Right ventricle
of heart
Visceral pleura
Visceral pericardium
Pleural cavity
Parietal pleura
Anterior
Pericardial cavity
Parietal pericardium
Sternum
Fibrous pericardium
36
Abdominal Serous Membranes
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Spinal cord
Plane of
section
Vertebra
Right kidney
Left
kidney
Aorta
Inferior
vena cava
Pancreas
Spleen
Small intestine
Large
intestine
Liver
Large intestine
Rib
Gallbladder
Duodenum
Costal cartilage
Visceral peritoneum
Stomach
Peritoneal cavity
Anterior
Parietal peritoneum
37
1.8: Anatomical Terminology
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Anatomical Position – standing
erect, facing forward, upper
limbs at the sides, palms facing
forward and thumbs out
Integumentary system
38
Anatomical Terminology:
Orientation and Directional Terms
• Terms of Relative Position
(based on anatomical
position):
• Superior versus Inferior
• Anterior versus Posterior
• Medial versus Lateral
• Ipsi-lateral versus Contra-lateral
• Proximal versus Distal (only in the
extremities)
• Superficial versus Deep
• Internal versus External
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Body Sections or Planes (3)
• Sagittal or Median – divides body into left and right portions
• Mid-sagittal – divides body into equal left and right
portions
• Transverse or Horizontal – divides body into superior and
inferior portions
• Coronal or Frontal – divides body into anterior and posterior
portions
40
Body Sections
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Median
(midsagittal)
plane
Parasagittal
plane
Transverse
(horizontal)
plane
A section along the
median plane
A section along a transverse
plane
A section along a frontal
plane
Frontal
(coronal)
plane
© McGraw-Hill Higher Education, Inc./Joe De Grandis, photographer
41
Body Sections
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
(a)
(b)
(c)
a: © Patrick J. Lynch/Photo Researchers, Inc.; b: © Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.; c: © A. Glauberman/Photo Researchers, Inc.
42
Other Body Sections
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43
(a)
(b)
(c)
Abdominal Subdivisions (2)
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Right
Epigastric
hypochondriac region
region
Right
lumbar
region
Umbilical
region
Left
hypochondriac
region
• Regions (9)
Left
lumbar
region
Right Hypogastric Left
iliac
iliac
region
region
region
(a)
Right upper
Left upper
quadrant (RUQ) quadrant (LUQ)
Right lower
quadrant (RLQ)
(b)
• Quadrants (4)
Left lower
quadrant (LLQ)
44
Body Regions
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Cephalic (head)
Frontal (forehead)
Otic (ear)
Nasal (nose)
Oral (mouth)
Cervical (neck)
Acromial
(point of shoulder)
Axillary (armpit)
Orbital (eye cavity)
Buccal (cheek)
Sternal
Acromial
(point of shoulder)
Pectoral
(chest)
Vertebral
(spinal column)
Mammary (breast)
Brachial (arm)
Brachial
(arm)
Antecubital
(front of elbow)
Abdominal
(abdomen)
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Carpal (wrist)
Occipital
(back of head)
Mental (chin)
Dorsum (back)
Umbilical
(navel)
Cubital (elbow)
Inguinal
(groin)
Lumbar
(lower back)
Coxal
(hip)
Gluteal (buttocks)
Sacral (between hips)
Perineal
Palmar (palm)
Digital (finger)
Femoral (thigh)
Genital
(reproductive organs)
Popliteal (back of knee)
Patellar
(front of knee)
Sural (calf)
Crural (leg)
Tarsal (instep)
Pedal (foot)
(a)
Digital (toe)
Plantar (sole)
(b)
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1.7: Lifespan Changes
Aging occurs from the microscopic level to the
whole-body level.
46