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Anatomy- study of the structure of living organisms by
looking at an organisms biological system and their
biological system’s organs and tissues.
Subdivisions:
 Gross anatomy- examination without microscope
 Microscopic Anatomy- examination with microscope
 Histology- examination of tissues
 Cytology- examination of cells
 Developmental anatomy- changes from fertilized egg to
adult
 Embryology- changes from egg to 8th week in uterus
 Pathology – changes associated with disease
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Physiology- the study of the individual function of
cells, organs and tissues, and how they all
cooperate together in an organism.
Subdivisions:
 Cell physiology- examination of function and
interaction of cells
 Systemic physiology- examination of functional
interaction of organs which make up a system
 Pathological physiology- examination of effects
caused by a disease on an organ or entire system
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Chemical- reactions take place to make changes on
a cellular level
Cellular- cells are formed together to make different
types of tissues
Tissue- are combined to form organs such as a
heart, or lungs
Organ- organs work together to function in an
organ system
Organ System- cooperate with each other to keep
an organism alive
Organism- is made up of all of levels of structural
organization
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Circulatory System: heart, blood vessels, blood, lymph, lymph
structures.
-Function: transport materials, defends against disease.
Digestive System: mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver,
pancreas.
-Function: ingest and digest food for energy, absorbs into blood
Endocrine System: pituitary gland, adrenal gland, thyroid gland,
hypothalamus gland, pineal gland, kidney, pancreas, ovaries,
testes.
-Function: regulates body chemistry and many body functions.
Integument System: skin, nails, hair, sweat glands.
-Function: covers and protects body.
Lymphatic System: subdivision of circulatory, contains lymph.
-Function: movement of fluid and is a defense mechanism of
the body against disease.
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Muscular System: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle.
-Function: locomotion, pumps blood.
Nervous System: nerves, brain, spiral cord.
-Function: Receives stimuli externally and internally, conducts
impulses for other systems.
Reproductive System: testes, ovaries.
-Function: reproduction
Respiratory System: lungs, air passageways.
-Function: exchange gas between blood and outside environment.
Skeletal System: bones, ligaments, cartilage.
-Function: supports and protects body, calcium storage and cell
formation.
Urinary System: kidney, bladder.
-Function: gets rid of waste, removes excess substances from
blood.
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Adaptation
Digestion
Excretion
Growth
Metabolism
Movement
Responsiveness
Reproduction
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Homeostasis: a systems ability to maintain internal
stability
Homeostasis allows the body to keep stability to things
we cannot change such as our internal temperature, our
body allows us to sweat to cool off the heat build up
within our body without our control.
Negative and Positive feedback affect body homeostasis
by making a change in an organisms system to keep
constant homeostasis.
 Example: The human body sweats. Humans sweat
when the body begins to overheat so, the body applies
negative feedback to counteract the heating by cooling
down the body with sweat.
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Anatomical position is when the body is standing with
feet together, arms to the side, with the head, eyes and
palms facing forward.
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Anterior: toward front of body
Posterior: toward back of the body
Medial: Toward middle line of the body
Lateral: toward side of the body
Proximal: nearest to a point given
Distal: Farther from point of reference
Superior: above
Inferior: below
Cranial (Cephalic): toward the head
Caudal: toward the lower end of spine
Superficial (External): close to surface of body
Deep (internal): close to center of body
Frontal Plane (Coronal Plane): made at right angles to the midline and divides
body into anterior parts
Sagittal plane: passes from front to back divides left and right portions
Transverse: passes horizontally dividing the body into bottom and top
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Dorsal Cavity (subdivisions)
1. Cranial cavity- Brain
2. Vertebral canal- Spinal cord
Ventral Cavity (subdivisions)
1. Thoracic cavity- Lungs and Heart
2. Diaphragm- diaphragm
3. Abdominopelvic cavity
A) Abdominal cavity- Digestive organs, spleen, and kidneys
B) Pelvic cavity- bladder and reproductive organs, testes and
ovaries
• Pericardium: protects heart from chest wall and other
structures in heart
• Peritoneum: covers and protects abdominal organs
• Pleura: to protect lungs from chest and keeps lungs
air tight
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Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ): stomach, spleen, left
kidney, pancreas, left ureter, small intestine, parts of
duedenum, and the transverse and descending colon.
Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ): small intestine, descending
and sigmoid colon, rectum, left ureter, and urinary
bladder.
Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ): appendix, cecum,
ascending colon, small intestine, right ureter, urinary
ladder, and rectum.
Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ): gallbladder, liver,
pancreas, small intestine, and ascending and transverse
colon.
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Electrical Energy: is the presence of a flow of an
electrical charge.
Heat Energy: is the transfer of kinetic energy by
collision.
Kinetic Energy: is the energy of motion.
Light Energy: light is energy being transferred from
space.
Potential Energy: when an object stores energy because
of its position.
Sound Energy: is energy produced by vibrations.
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Chemical Element: is an element that cannot be broken
down into another substance.
The four elements that make up the bulk of body
matter are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, & oxygen.
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Solutions & Colloids: homogeneous mixtures
Suspension: heterogeneous.
Particles of a Solutions and particles of a Colloid will
never settle
Particles in a Suspension would eventually settle
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Polar and non-polar compounds are both poor
conductors.
Polar compounds
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soluble
have a electronegetivity difference less than 1.7
has a polar covalent bond
have partially negative and partially positive dipole bonds
Non-polar compounds
› have electronegetivity difference of 0
› Insoluble
› the same equal amounts of negative and positive charges
of electrons
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Synthesis: two or more chemicals combine to form a
more complex product
Decomposition: is the separation of molecules to a more
simplified compound.
Exchange: the exchange of one or more elements in
two different compounds.
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Chemical reactions within the body are often irreversible
because the human body does not contain the extra
energy to take part in various chemical reactions. The
body constantly trying to maintain homeostasis and the
human body always tries to keep a stabilized condition.
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Cells transport materials around the body and in order
to do so they go through processes such as osmosis
and diffusion which depend on the body’s salt and
water balance in order for these reactions to take place.
Acid: Proton donator it gives a H+ ion in a reaction.
 Base: Proton acceptor it receives the H+ ion in a
reaction.
 pH: measurement of acidity in a solution. If a solution
has a pH of less than 7-0 them it is an acid and if a
solution has a pH of more then 7-14 it is a base if the
solution has a pH of 7 then it is neutral. The higher the
pH, the more basic the solution is and the lower the pH,
the more acidic solution.
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An enzyme combines with a substrate on the active site
the combination of the substrate changes the
distribution of electrons and speeds up the reaction
process then the products are released from the
enzymes surface.
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Cell Membrane: Protects cell from outdoor environments
and diffuses materials in and out of cell.
Cytoplasm: Jelly like substance that fills the cell and
serves as locomotion of organelles and substances
inside the cell.
Nucleus: Core of the cell that contains genetic material
to store DNA molecules organized into structures called
chromosomes.
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The plasma membrane has two phospholipid layers.
Proteins are found in the bi-lipid membrane and channel
proteins are used as channels to transport specific
molecules across the plasma membrane.
 Tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions all:
-create waterproof attachments
-prevent movement of select fluids and molecules
between cells
-connect to cytoplasm of other cells
-are made out of protein
-can exchange substances between cells
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Plasma membrane structures are able to choose which
cells they want to exchange materials with using the
different types of gap junctions. They can anchor other
cells cytoskeleton and transport foreign materials with
each other by allowing or blocking off the pathway with
other proteins from the gap junction.
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Glycocalyx is the outer layer of a bacteria cell. It helps
bacteria cells hold in water and allows cells to stick onto
other substances or even other cells.
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Mitochondria are the power house of a cell. The
mitochondria has a double-membrane structure. They
produce ATP by aerobic respiration like glycolysis. ATP is
short for Adenosine triphosphate.
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Ribosomes: Cells contain thousands, they are small
protein factories, some are formed on the surface
of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, and others
float in cytoplasm.
Endoplasmic Reticulum: Network of tubes that is
fused to the nuclear membrane. Stores separate,
and is a transport system. Rough endoplasmic
Reticulum has embedded ribosomes and the
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum does not.
Golgi Apparatus: Called the packaging plant,
composed of layers of proteins, and is usually found
near nucleus. Ships materials around cells.
Lysosomes: Transport undigested material to the cell
membrane so they can be removed from the cell; vary
in shapes and sizes
 Peroxisomes: Membrane enclosed organelles; like
mitochondria because they are assembled from protein
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There are 46 strands of DNA called chromosomes in
each cell. In every cell, there are genes in chromosomes
and before the cell divides the DNA must be copied so
when the cell divides there is a duplicate of the DNA.
The DNA is copied by a replication fork forms when the
DNA strand is split in two then Nucleotides are added to
mach the strand’s code (G-C) (A-T).
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Translation: First ribosomes attach to mRNA at the start
codon then its goes through the elongation phase, this
phase is when structures of amino acid linked to tRNA
bind to the appropriate codon in mRNA and making the
same pairs with the tRNA anticodon. Amino acids are
then added individually then a release factor binds to
the stop codon stopping the translation.
Transcription: Before synthesis of the protein begins a
corresponding RNA molecule is produced by
transcription then one strand of DNA double helix is
used to copy using a messenger RNA then the mRNA
goes to the cells cytoplasm and goes through different
mutations this can be described as a unit of three
nucleotide which is called a codon.
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Epithelial Tissue:
› Covers most of external and internal body tissues,
› Cells are attached to one another
› Intercellular spaces in epithelium tissue are small
› It is polarized
› Epithelial cells are separated from other tissue by a
basement membrane
› Allows very little if any substances to pass through
this tissue
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Simple: Cells that are arranged in a single layer. Located in the
inner surface of cheeks. Function diffusion and filtration.
Stratified: If the cell is arranged in two or more layers. Locations
mouth, esophagus, and canal. Function protection.
Squamous: When the cell has a flattened shape. Location blood
vessels.
Cuboidal: If the cells have the same height. Location rings of cells.
Function secretion, excretion, and absorption.
Columnar: If the height exceeds the width. Location lining of most
of the digestive track. Function protection, secretion, absorption.
Pseudostratifed Ciliated Column: The Pseudostratifed Ciliated
Column is a respiratory epithelium found in the nasal septum,
trachea, and bronchi. Function is to trap and move pollutants.
Transitional: Used to easily push down waste found in the ureter,
and urinary bladder. Function is for distention.
Gland: Specialized cell, group of cells, or an organ of
endothelial origin that removes materials from blood,
concentrates or changes them, or secretes them for
further use in the body or for elimination.
 Endocrine Glands: secrete hormones into bloodstream
 Exocrine Glands: secrete non-hormonal chemicals into
ducts that transports chemicals in body to specific
locations
 Unicellular Glands: Specialize in secretion in small
amounts
 Multicellular Glands: Chained together and use a mode
of secretion called merocrine, apocrine, or holocrine
which are more efficient ways for secreting materials
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Adipose tissue: Loose tissue with fat cells or adipocytes
Dense: High density or extracellular fibers which makes it strong
and sturdy
Elastic Tissue: Dense tissue it is more elastic then the dense
collagenous tissue located in the wall of the aorta and the elastic
ligament of the spine
Fibrocollagenous: Flexible and has great strength, located in the
sclera in eyes and in the dermis of skin
Irregular: Fibers are arranged in random directions
Loose: Lacks fibrous reinforcement which makes it more delicate
Lymphoid Tissue: Loose tissue has a continuous but easily broken
wall located in the spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and tonsils
Ordinary (Proper): General form or regular proportions of
extracellular fibers, and extracellular ground substances
Regular: Aligned in a single direction
Special: Connects bone, cartilage, and lymphoid tissue
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Cutaneous: Covers the surface of body consist of
stratified squamous epithelium and connective
tissues. They are thick, waterproof, and dry.
Mucous: Lines cavities that connect with the
exterior including, digestive, respiratory,
reproductive, and urinary tracts. They keep moist at
all times. Usually lined with simple epithelia that
have absorptive or secretory functions.
Serous: Line sealed internal cavities in body lines
the heart, liver, stomach, and the lungs. Has
pariental and visceral properties that decreases
friction between opposing surfaces.
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First, a temporary clot is formed. Then, steps for repair
begin. Inflammatory cells, fibroblasts and capillaries
invade the clot to form ganulation tissue. This tissue
makes the wound come together and epidermal edges
cover the wounds surface.
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Connective Tissue: Origin in skeletal muscle, cardiac
muscle.
Epithelial Tissue: Origin in surface of skin, airways,
reproduction track, and digestive tract.
Muscle Tissue: Origin in skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle.
Nervous Tissue: Origin in cranial nerves, spinal nerves,
motor neurons.
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