Download operant conditioning

Chapter 5
Learning
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Overview
• Classical Conditioning
– Learning through association of stimuli
• Operant Conditioning
• Learning through consequences
• Cognitive Learning
– Observational Learning
 Learning through watching others
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Learning
• A relatively permanent change in
behavior, knowledge, capability, or
attitude
– acquired through experience
– cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or
maturation
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 5.1
Classical Conditioning
• A type of learning through which an
organism learns to associate one
stimulus with another
– A stimulus is any event or object in the
environment to which an organism
responds
• A type of learning in which a response
naturally ELICTED by 1 stimulus comes to
be ELICITED by a different, formerly
neutral stimulus
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Figure 5.1 The Experimental Apparatus Used in Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Studies
In Pavlov’s classical conditioning studies, the dog was restrained in a harness in the cubicle and isolated from all
distractions. An experimenter observed the dog through a one-way mirror and, by remote control, presented the
dog with food and other conditioning stimuli. A tube carried the saliva from the dog’s mouth to a container where
it was measured.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Pavlov and the Process of
Classical Conditioning cont…
• Neutral stimulus (NS)
– Causes no response
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (US)
– Elicits an unconditioned response
without learning
• Unconditioned Response (UCR) (UR)
– elicited by an unconditioned stimulus
without learning
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Pavlov and the Process of
Classical Conditioning cont…
• Conditioned stimulus (CS)
– Neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing
with UCS, becomes associated with it and
elicits a conditioned response
• Conditioned response (CR)
– Learned response that comes to be elicited
by a conditioned stimulus
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Figure 5.2 Classically Conditioning a Salivation Response
A neutral stimulus (a tone) elicits no salivation until it is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus
(food). After many pairings, the neutral stimulus (now called the conditioned stimulus) alone produces salivation.
Classical conditioning has occurred.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 5.2
Changing Conditioned Responses
• Extinction
– weakening and disappearance of CR as
a result of repeated presentation of CS
without UCS
• Spontaneous Recovery
– reappearance of extinguished CR when
organism is exposed to CS following rest
period
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 5.2
Changing Conditioned Responses
• Generalization
– tendency to make a CR to a stimulus
that is similar to the original CS
• Discrimination
– learned ability to distinguish between
similar stimuli
– CR occurs only in response to the
original CS, not to similar stimuli.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 5.3
John Watson
• Watson and Rayner (1920) "Little
Albert" Study
• 3 important findings:
– Humans can be classically conditioned
– Fear can be learned.
– Fear can be generalized.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Human Behavior and Classical conditioning
1.
2.
3.
4.
Psychological drug dependence
Music
Smells
Can you think of others??
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 5.6
Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life
• Why can diet soda make people
hungry?
– The sweet taste of soda becomes a CS.
 elicits insulin increase (UCR)
 leads to feelings of hunger
– The pancreas pumps out insulin (lowers
blood sugar) in response to any sweet
taste such as diet soda.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 5.6
Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life
• Why can diet soda make people
hungry?
– Without real sugar, insulin causes blood
sugar to drop below normal.
– Insulin drop causes the body to signal
to the brain to eat.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 5.7
Operant
OperantConditioning:
Conditioning:Thorndike,
Thorndike Skinner,
Skinner
and the Consequences of Behavior
• Law of Effect (Thorndike)
 Organisms tend to repeat behaviors that
bring about pleasant consequences and
ignore those that do not.
– Law of effect formed the basis for B. F.
Skinner's work on operant conditioning.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 5.7
Operant Conditioning: Thorndike, Skinner,
and the Consequences of Behavior
• Operant
– voluntary behavior that accidentally
brings about a consequence
• Operant Conditioning
– The consequences of behavior are
manipulated to INCREASE or DECREASE
the frequency of an existing response or
shape a new one.
Learning is influenced by its
consequences!!!!
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 5.7
Operant Conditioning: Thorndike, Skinner,
and the Consequences of Behavior
• Reinforcer
• Anything that follows a response and
strengthens it or increases the
probability that it will be repeated
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
– A pleasant or desirable consequence that
increases the probability that a response will
be repeated
Negative reinforcement
– Termination of an unpleasant condition after a
response, which increases the probability that
the response will be repeated
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Punishment
Punishment is the removal of a pleasant
stimulus or the application of an unpleasant
stimulus, thereby lowering the probability
of a response
– Positive punishment
 Decrease in behavior that results
from an added consequence
(usually something person does
not want)
– Negative punishment
 Decrease in behavior that results
from a removed consequence
(loss of something desirable)
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
TABLE 5.1
The Effects of Reinforcement and
Punishment
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Alternatives to Punishment
1. Removing the rewarding consequences of
undesirable behavior may be the best
way to extinguish it
– Not giving in to a child’s demands during a
tantrum
– Ignoring misbehavior that is performed merely
to get attention and giving attention to more
appropriate behaviors
2. Using positive reinforcement can make
good behavior more rewarding
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Making Punishment More Effective
1. Punishment is most effective when
applied during the misbehavior or as
soon afterward as possible
2. Punishment should be of the minimum
severity necessary to suppress the
problem behavior
3. To be effective, punishment must be
applied consistently
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Applications of Operant Conditioning
1. Behavior modification
– Changing behavior based on the learning
principles of classical conditioning, operant
conditioning, or observational learning
– Has been used to change self-injurious
behavior in children and adults with autism
2. Token economy
– A program that motivates socially desirable
behavior by reinforcing it with tokens
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Classical and Operant Conditioning Compared
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Observational Learning
1. Albert Bandura: Many behaviors are
acquired through observational learning
– Learning by observing the behavior of
others and the consequences of that
behavior; learning by imitation
 Model is the individual who
demonstrates a behavior or whose
behavior is imitated (effectiveness of model
related to status, competence, and power)
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Learning from Television and
Electronic Games
1. Bandura’s “Bobo Doll” studies
– Children imitate aggressive behavior of an
adult model seen on film
2. Recent research
– Individuals who watch the most violence as
children are more likely to engage in acts of
violence as adults
3. Children also imitate prosocial behavior
– As seen on shows such as Sesame Street
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Learning from Television and
Electronic Games
Recent research suggest that playing violent
video games increases feelings of hostility and
decreases sensitivity to violent images
But, like television, video games can also
teach positive messages and skills
– Can teach teenagers to drive more safely
– Can enhance spatial cognitive skills
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 5.17
Learning from Media: Effects
of the Multitasking Environment
• More time spent multitasking may
leave a subject less capable of
managing thought processes when not
multitasking.
• May reduce ability to differentiate
between relevant and irrelevant
information
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 5.17
Learning from Media: Television
and Other Entertainment Media
• Recent Research
– brain imaging: patterns of neural
activation develop by watching violent
media
• Children also imitate prosocial
behavior.
– Media may teach children not to engage
in aggressive acts.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 5.17
Learning from Media: Electronic
Games
• Recent research suggests that playing
violent video games increases feelings
of hostility and decreases sensitivity to
violent images.
• Games can also teach positive
messages and skills.
– Games often played in male peer groups
may be essential for social
development.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 5.17
Learning from Media: Electronic
Games
• Games can also teach positive
messages and skills.
– can teach safe driving skills
– can enhance women's spatial cognitive
skills
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Figure 5.8 “Gamers” in Four Age Groups
Researchers at the Pew Internet & American Life Project track all kinds of media use among children and adults
in the United States. One of their findings is that younger adults are more likely to play video games at least
occasionally than those who are older. However, older adults who play are more likely to do so every day than
younger adults are.
Source: Data from Lenhart, A., Jones, S., & Macgill, A. (2008).
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 5.17
Learning from Media: The Internet
• Educators should not assume that
Internet-based instruction is more
effective than conventional approaches
(Mayer, 2010).
• Physical manipulations of the computer
distracts online readers.
– hinders ability to comprehend and
remember what they are reading
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 5.17
Learning from Media: The Internet
• Younger children using Web-based
materials are more likely to be
distracted by ads than older children.
• Conventional classroom lectures and
textbooks are just as useful for learning
complex material as multimedia
presentations.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd