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Psychology • Scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their mental processes • Scientific method-(set of steps) • Behavior (adjustment to environment) • Individual • Mental process (human mind) Goals • Describe-data, observations, analysis Goals • Explain-find patterns, why? – Orgasmic: inner determinants of an organism – Dispositional: in human or animal occurrences of organismic variables – Situational or environmental variables: external influence Goals • Predicting • Scientific vs. Causal – Scientific-relation of events – Casual-condition under change Goals • Control – starting, stopping, maintaining, strengthening, weakening a behavior History of Psychology • Socrates, Plato, Aristotle – mind controlled by person, not gods • Dualism (1600) – mind+body separate • Descartes-Mind controls body (1596-1650) William Wundt (1879) • 1st experimental Psy. Lab • Structuralism – Study of the structure of mind + behavior – All human mental experience can be understood as a combination of simple elements or events • Rejections to structuralism – Reductionism-over simplified – Elemental-did not look at whole – Mentalistic-only verbal human William James (1890) Functionalism -learned habits that enabled organism to adapt, function and survive in their environment John Dewey (1920’s) • Founded the school of functionalism Modern Psychological Approaches • Biological • Focus on genes, brain, nervous and endocrine systems to identify behaviors • Psychodynamic • Driven by powerful inner forces • Unconscious • Freud • Behaviorist • Measurable or observable behavior • Humanistic • People in inherently good, striving for maximum potential • Rogers, Maslow • Cognitive Psychology • Scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their mental processes • Scientific method-(set of steps) • Behavior (adjustment to environment) • Individual • Mental process (human mind) Scientific Method • • • • Hypothesis Test hypothesis Organize and report on Data Conclusion Bias • Due to personal motives, expectations Standardization • Uniform procedures in treating things in an experiment Variable • Factor that varies in amount or kind Independent vs. Dependent • Free to vary vs. acted upon (changes) Confounding Variable • Stimulus other than the variable an experimenter explicitly introduces Expectancy Effects • Experimenter manipulates the situation creating expected result. Placebo effect Control Procedures • Double blind – Keep both assistants + participant unaware • Between Subject designs – Random assignment Representative Sample • Cannot get everyone take small sample that represents population Within-subjects design • Use subject as their own control A-B-A Design • A-baseline • B-treatment • A-Return to Baseline Correlation Methods • Figure which 2 variables, traits, or attributes are related • correlation coefficient (r) • 1.0 to –1.0 Reliability • Test produces similar scores each time Validity • Test measures what it is intended to measure Self Reported Measures • Observe and report one’s own behavior Behavioral Measures • Overt actions + reactions that are observed + recorded not self reported Case Study • Intensive study of one or a few Ethics • • • • Risk vs. Brains Informed consent Intentional Deception Animals Goals • Describe-data, observations, analysis Goals • Explain-find patterns, why? – Orgasmic: inner determinants of an organism – Dispositional: in human or animal occurrences of organismic variables – Situational or environmental variables: external influence Goals • Predicting • Scientific vs. Causal – Scientific-relation of events – Casual-condition under change Goals • Control – starting, stopping, maintaining, strengthening, weakening a behavior History of Psychology • Socrates, Plato, Aristotle – mind controlled by person, not gods • Dualism (1600) – mind+body separate • Descartes-Mind controls body (1596-1650) William Wundt (1879) • 1st experimental Psy. Lab • Structuralism – Study of the structure of mind + behavior – All human mental experience can be understood as a combination of simple elements or events • Rejections to structuralism – Reductionism-over simplified – Elemental-did not look at whole – Mentalistic-only verbal human William James (1890) Functionalism -learned habits that enabled organism to adapt, function and survive in their environment John Dewey (1920’s) • Founded the school of functionalism http://youtube.com/watch?v=FeF DnS1DjKM • History of Psychology Modern Psychological Approaches • Biological • Focus on genes, brain, nervous and endocrine systems to identify behaviors • Psychodynamic • Driven by powerful inner forces • Unconscious • Freud • Behaviorist • Measurable or observable behavior • Humanistic • People in inherently good, striving for maximum potential • Rogers, Maslow • Cognitive Scientific Method • • • • Hypothesis Test hypothesis Organize and report on Data Conclusion Bias • Due to personal motives, expectations Standardization • Uniform procedures in treating things in an experiment Variable • Factor that varies in amount or kind Independent vs. Dependent • Free to vary vs. acted upon (changes) Confounding Variable • Stimulus other than the variable an experimenter explicitly introduces Expectancy Effects • Experimenter manipulates the situation creating expected result. Placebo effect • No experimental manipulation Placebo Effect • http://youtube.com/watch?v=MzjoKhBklYg Control Procedures • Double blind – Keep both assistants + participant unaware • Between Subject designs – Random assignment Representative Sample • Cannot get everyone take small sample that represents population Within-subjects design • Use subject as their own control A-B-A Design • A-baseline • B-treatment • A-Return to Baseline Correlation Methods • Figure which 2 variables, traits, or attributes are related • correlation coefficient (r) • 1.0 to –1.0 Reliability • Test produces similar scores each time Validity • Test measures what it is intended to measure Self Reported Measures • Observe and report one’s own behavior Behavioral Measures • Overt actions + reactions that are observed + recorded not self reported Case Study • Intensive study of one or a few Ethics • • • • Risk vs. Brains Informed consent Intentional Deception Animals Darwin (1831) Natural Selection • Favorable adaptations to features of the environment allow some members of a species to reproduce more successfully that others • Finches Galapagos Islands • Survival of the fittest Genotype • Genetic structure from parent Phenotype • Observable characteristics DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) • Contain genes Heredity • Passing on traits from parent to offspring Genetics • Study of the inheritance of physical + psychological traits from ancestors Genes • Basic units of heredity Human Behavior Genetics • Explore the link between inheritance + behavior Sociobiology • Evolutionary explanation for social behavior + systems Neuroscience • Scientific study of the brain + links to activity + behavior Electroencephalogram (EEG) • Record electric brain activity Positron-Emissions Tomography (PET) Scans • Given “safe” radiation that goes to brain to see activity in brain Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) • Radio waves + magnetic fields to see brain image Functional MRI • MRI + PET The Nervous System • 3 major classes of neurons – 1) sensory – toward (CNS) – 2) motor – away (CNS) – 3) interneurons – bridges between neurons Central Nervous System • Composed of neurons • Brain + spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System • Connect CNS to body periphery Somatic Nervous System • Regulates skeletal, muscles + skin Autonomic Nervous System • Controls body’s involuntary motor responses – Sympathetic = emergency – Parasympathetic = routine internal operations Nervous system • http://youtube.com/watch?v=cqvoV4R7T2g The Nervous System • Neuron – Cell to receive, process and transmit information to other cells – Dendrites • Branched fibers of neurons that receive incoming signals – Soma – • Cell body of a neuron • Contain nucleus + cytoplasm • Integrates info. – Axon • Extended fiber of a neuron, nerve impulses pass soma to terminal buttons – Terminal Buttons Nerve • http://youtube.com/watch?v=XgIaAs_ONG 4 The Nervous System • Glia – Cells that hold nerves together – Remove dead neurons • Stops poisons in blood from reaching brain The Nervous System • Excitatory-fire • Inhibitory-don’t fire The Nervous System • Action Potential – Nerve impulse released • All – or – None Law – Size of potential unaffected by increased intensity • Refractionary Period – Rest period-nerve cannot fire • Synapse – Gap between one neuron+another – Transition • Neurotransmitters – Chemicals released from one neuron to another The Brain • Electronic stimulations • Broca’s area – Thoughts into speech or sign • Lesions – Injuries or dead areas of brain The Brain Structures • Brain Stem – – – – Regulates internal organs Medulla-heart, breathing, blood pressure Pons-Bridge-connects spinal cord with brain Reticular Formation • Spinal cord, alerts cerebral cortex – Thalamus • Channels incoming sensory information to appropriate area of cerebral cortex – Cerebellum • Balance, coordination Brain Structure - Limbic System • Regulates emotional behavior, motivation+memory • Body temp., blood pressure, blood sugar • 3 structures – Hippocampus • Explicit memories – Amygdale • Emotions+emotional memory – Hypothalamus • Motivated behavior (eating, drink, sex) • Keeps bodies homeostasis (balance) Hypothalamus • http://youtube.com/watch?v=PMrPlCDGU wo Brain Structure - Cerebrum • Regulates higher cognitive + emotional functions • Cerebral cortex – Outside 1/10 of cerebrum – 2 halves cerebral hemispheres • Corpus callosum – Separated cerebral hemispheres • Mapping – Central sulcus-vertical – Lateral fissures-horizontal Brain Structure • http://youtube.com/watch?v=g6KpIrKCDw g Cerebrum Cont. • Frontal lobe – Motor controls + cognitive activities • Parietal Lobe – Sensations (limbs) • Touch, pain, temps • Occipital lobe – Vision (eyes) • Temporal lobe – Hearing (ears) • Motor cortex – Voluntary muscle control Brain Structure • http://youtube.com/watch?v=IeqsxWfUvoo Cerebrum Cont. • Somatosensory cortex – Temp, touch, pain (lips, tongue, index finger) • Auditory cortex – Both ears/both lobes • Visual cortex – Both eyes-retina • Association cortex – Planning and decision making • Wernicke’s Area – Spoken language Hemispheric Lateralication • Things happen on different sides of brain, + communicate through the corpus callosum i.e.. Left-speech Endocrine System • Network of glands that secrete hormones (chemical messengers). – Growth, mood, sex • Pituitary Gland – “Master Gland” • Secretes – testosterone - estrogen • Other glands – Thyroid, Pancreas, Ovaries, Testes Endocrine System • http://youtube.com/watch?v=rS7SM4vzs18 Sensation • Stimulation of a sensory receptor gives rise to neural impulses which give awareness to conditions inside or outside the body Psychophysics • Study of the relationship between physical stimuli and the behavior or mental experiences the stimuli evoke • Founder –Gustav Fechner • Absolute threshold – Smallest unit or minimal amount of physical energy needed to produce a sensory experience. Amount of energy related to intensity of experience. Psychophysics • Psychometric function – A graph that shows the % of detections at each stimulus intensity Psychophysics • Sensory Adaptation – Diminishing responsiveness of sensory systems to prolonged stimulus input. (stinky room) Psychophysics • Response bias-favor responding in a particular way. • Signal detection theory (SDT) – Helps combat response bias – Initial sensory process – Separate decision process Psychophysics • Difference thresholds – Smallest physical difference between 2 stimuli that can still be recognized as a difference – Just noticeable difference (JND) – Weber’s law • Size of a difference thresholds is proportional • Lmm/10mm=.1; 2mm/20mm=.1 • +-I/I=K Sensory Physiology • Biological mechanisms (eye, mouth, ear) convert physical events into neural events. • Sensory receptors – Specialized cells that convert physical signals into cellular signals that are processed by the nervous system • Transduction – Transforming one energy into another sound or lightneural impulses Visual System (eye) • Pupil – opening in iris-light passes through • lens – focuses light – Accommodation-the ciliary muscles changing the thickness of lens • Retina-layer of photoreceptors at the back of the eye-converts light into nerve energy Visual System • Photoreceptors – – – – Rods-active in dim light, lack color Cones-normal viewing-color Foveo-all cones- best viewing Bipolar cells-combine impulses from receptors send to ganglion cells – Ganglion cells-integrates into a single fire rate – Amacrine+horizontal cells-integrate info across retina Visual Systems • Primary visual cortex-region in occipital lobe in which visual info is processed • Optic nerve-axons of ganglion cells that carry info from the eye to brain • Optic tracts-deliver info to 2 clusters – 2 sides of brain w/ same pattern on each side • Color-spectrum (wave lengths) – – – – Hue-captures the qualitative experience Brightness-intensity Additive color-combining wavelengths Subtractive color Visual Systems -Colorblindness – Sex linked – Connected to X Visual Systems • Trichromatic Theory (Thomas Young+Hermann von Helmholte) – 3 types of color receptors-blue, red, green Visual Systems • Opponent-process theory (Ewald Hering) – All color experiences come from 3 systems, red v green – blue v yellow - black (no color) v white (all colors) Visual Systems • Receptive field – Visual area from which a given ganglion cell receives info (selective) Hearing • Sine waves-1,100 / second – 2 properties • Frequency-measured in hertz (HZ) – # of cycles/time • Amplitude-strength-peak/valley – Pitch-highness or lowness of sound • 20 HZ-20,000 HZ • Piano 88 keys, 30 HZ – 4,000 HZ – Loudness-physical intensity, determined by amplitude • Large amplitude=loud • Small=soft • Decibel levels-measures loudness – Timbre-complexity of sound waves Physiology • 4 energy transformations – – – – 1)airborne sound waves to fluid waves 2)fluid waves to mechanical vibrations 3)vibrations to electrical impulses 4)impulses to auditory cortex Physiology • Sound travels – 1)external ear-reflects of pinna through outer ear canal • Hits eardrum (tympanic membrane) – 2)Middle Ear-3 small bones • Hammer, anvil + stirrup (vibrate) – 3)inner ear • Cochlea – primary organ of hearing (fluid filled) – Basilar membrane – inside cochlea – Transform fluid wave to nerve impulses w/ stimulus of hair cells • Auditory nerve – Carries nerve impulses from cochlea to brain • Auditory cortex – In temperal lobe – Receives auditory nerve impulses Place Theory (George von Bekesy) • Different frequency tones produce maximum activation at different locations along basilar membrane, w/ the result that pitch can be coded by the place that which activation occurs. Frequency Theory • Tones produce a rate of vibration in the basilar membrane equal to frequency, w/ the result that pitch can be coded by frequency of the neural response. – Volley Principle • When peaks in sound waves come too frequently for a single neuron to fire at each peak, several neurons fire a group at the frequency of the stimulus tone Other Senses • Smell – Olfactory cilia – 80 molecules to stimulate – 40 nerve endings to smell – Olfactory bulb • Center for smelling • Located just below the frontal lobe of the cortex – Pheromones • Chemicals secreted to signal sexual receptivity, danger, territory + food. Other Senses • Taste-greatly influenced by smell – Tongue • Papillae-bumpy surface • Four primary nerve endings – Tastes-sweet, sour, bitter, salty • 5th umani MSG (Mono Sodium Glutamate) • Regenerates frequently Other Senses • Touch – Skin-cutaneous senses (skin’s senses) • Meissner corpuscles – rubbing • Merkel disks – pressure – Erogenous zones • Skin that is especially sensitive • Gives rise to erotic / sexual sensations Touch cont. • Vestibular / kinesthetic – Helps head position w/ gravity – Inner ear/fluid+hairs • Ex. Motion sickness (reading in car) – Kinesthetic • Constant sensory feedback about what the body is doing during motor activity. Pain • Body’s response to stimulation from noxious stimuli, threaten or cause tissue damage • 2 types of pain – Nociceptive – negative feeling ex. touch hot stove – Neuropathic-over use, abnormal functioning ex (injury disease) Phantom Limb Phenomenon Perception • The set of processes that organize information in the sensory image and interpret that information as having been produced by objects or events in the external world • Role is to make sense of sensations • What is perceived • The overall process of apprehending objects and events in the environment Perception • 3 stages – Sensation-conversion of physical energy in to neural code – Perceptual organization-internal perception of an object is formed and a percept of the external stimulus is developed. Working representation of the perceivers external environment ex(vision-seize, shape, movement, distance) – Identification/recognition-assigns meaning to percepts (ex. Circles become coins, balls clocks etc.) Stimuli • Retinal image 2 dimensional • Distal – Physical objects in the world • Proximal – Optical image on the retina • Ambiguity – Perceptual object that may have more than one interpretation • Illusions – Perceptual systems actually deceive you into experiencing a stimulus pattern in a manner that is a demonstratably incorrect Abiguity Abiguity Abiguity Illusion Illusion Illusion Study of Perception • Helmoltz (1866)-nurture – Using prior knowledge • Unconscious inferences – Perception that occurs outside of conscious awareness • Analytic stage-break physical world down • Synthetic stage-integrate and synthesize Study of Perception • Gestalt-Koffka(1935)/Kohler (1947)/ Wertheimer (1923) – Viewed as organized, structured wholes – Whole is more than the sum of its parts Gestalt principals Study of Perception • Theory of Ecological options Gibson+Gibson (1966+1979) – Focused on the properties of external stimuli – Perceiver as an explorer of the environment Attentional Processes • Attention-state of focused awareness on a subset of the available perceptual information Attentional Processes • Goal directed selection – Choices you make about objects to which you’d like to attend Attentional Processes • Stimulus-driven capture – Features of stimulus-objects in the environment, capture your attention Attentional Processes • Filter Theory (Broadbent 1958) – Mind has limited capacity to take in info. + the selection occurs early on in the process before the input’s meaning is accessed – Dichotic listening • Different auditory stimulus is simultaneously presented in each ear Attentional Processes • Preattentive Processes – Processing of sensory information that precedes attention to specific objects – Allows guided search Organizational Processes • Divides stimuli into figures – Figures-object like regions of the visual field that are distinguished from background – Ground-backdrop or background areas of the visual field against which figures stick out Organizational Processes • Illusory contours – Contours perceived in a figure when no contours are present Organizational Processes – Closure-makes you see incomplete figures as complete, balanced, symmetrical Organizational Processes • Law of Proximity – Law of grouping states the nearest or most proximal, elements are grouped together Organizational Processes • Law of similarity – Law of grouping states: similar elements are grouped together Organizational Processes • Law of common fate – Law of grouping states: elements moving in same direction at the same rate are grouped together Integration • Fixation-glance at something becomes fixed in mind • Spatial+temporal integration – Fixed locations in different moments for seeing what is around you Motion • Changing of size • Induced motion – An illusion in which a stationary point of light with in a moving reference frame is seen as moving +the reference frame is seen as stationary Motion (Phi phenomenon) • Apparent motion-movement illusion in which one or more stationary lights going on and off in succession are perceived as a single moving light Depth Perception • Depth-distance from an object Depth Perception • Depth cues – Binocular • 2 eyes • Retinal disparity-displacement between the horizontal positions of corresponding images in the two eyes – Binocular disparity • Taking 2 different retinal images, compares then for horizontal displacement of corresponding parts Depth Perception • Depth cues – Convergence • Degree to which eyes turn inward to fixate on an object Depth Perception – Relative motion parallax • Depth, relative distances of object from a viewer determine the amount + direction of their relative motion in the retinal image Depth Perception • Pictorial cues – Depth perception using one eye – Interposition or occlusion • Blocking out an object (one is in front of another) • Shadows ex. Person inside window – Size/distance relation • Closest projects largest size – Railroad example Ponzo Illusion Depth Perception • Perceptual constancy – The ability to retain an unchanged percept of an object despite various retinal images ex. Person moving round-close, back etc. Depth Perception • Size constancy – The ability to perceive the true size of an object despite variations in the size of the retinal image – Prior knowledge Depth Perception • Shape constancy – Ability to perceive the true shape of an object despite variation of size of retinal image Depth Perception • Orientation constancy – Ability to perceive the actual orientation of objects in the real world despite their varying orientation in the retinal image – Whit help from inner ear Depth Perception • Lightness constancy – The tendency to perceive the whiteness, grayness or blackness of objects as constant across changing levels of illumination Bottom-up • Less to more abstract Top-Down Information passed down from experience Abstract to concrete Content Consciousness • State of awareness of internal events and of the external environment • Perceptions, feelings, thoughts, images, desires, etc. Content Consciousness • Levels – 1.basic-inner+outer world ex. hunger, cars – 2. Reflection of what you are aware of – 3. Top level-awareness of yourself as a conscious, reflective individual • Self awareness – Personal history, identity Content Consciousness • Nonconscious processes – Bodily activates that rarely, if ever, impinge on consciousness i.e.. Blood pressure, heart, eyes Content Consciousness • Preconscious memories – Memories accessible to conscious only after something calls your attention to them-your memory Content Consciousness • Studying the unconscious – Think aloud protocols – Report made by experimental participants of their mental processes + strategies while working on task – Experience-sampling model • Participants are asked to record feelings+thinking whenever signaled Functions of Consciousness • Survival (James) • Making sense of environment – Restrictive function-lessens stimulus – Selective storage-categorizes – Executive control-stop+remember back, use old experiences – Culture plays role – Consensus validation-culture+personal views come together Functions of Consciousness • Conscious often affected by unconscious – (SLIP) spoonerisms of Laboratory-Induced Predisposition – I.e.. Color of snow, what do cows drink Sleep/Dreams • Circadian rhythms – Consistent pattern of cyclical body activities, usually lasting 24-25 hours – Internal biological clock – 24.18-hour cycle – Ex. Disruption-jet lag Sleep/Dreams • Sleep cycle – Electroencephalogram (EEG) – Rapid eye movement (REM)-dreaming – Non rapid eye movement (NREM)-less dreams Sleep/Dreams • Tracking sleep – – – – Going to bed 14 cycles per second (CPS) Relaxing in bed 8-12 CPS Stage 1:3-7 CPS-sleep Stage 2:12-16 CPS-sleep spindles • Mini bursts of electrical activity – Stage 3&4:1-2 CPS-deep sleep • Breathing/heart rate decrease • REM sleep-dreams Sleep/Dreams • Stages 1-4 = about 90 min. – REM sleep 10 min – 100 min sleep cycle 4-6 1 night – Each cycle deep sleep decreases as REM sleep increases – Last cycle up to 1 hr REM – Sleep=about REM 75% NREM 25% – Decrease in sleep w/ age Sleep Issues • Conservation – Saving energy for daily task ex. When dark no need to hunt Sleep Issues • Restoration – Replenish neurotransmitters + neuromodulators Sleep Issues • REM sleep – Might connect nerves+muscle pathways – Maintain mood and emotions – Balance brain Sleep Disorders • Insomnia – Dissatisfied w/ sleep – Cannot fall asleep, light sleep, wake up early – Subjectivity of person Sleep Disorders • Narcolepsy – Sleep during day time – Hit REM sleep instantly – Genetic Sleep Disorders • Apnea – Stops breathing while sleeping • Daytime Sleepiness – Excessive sleepiness during daytime activity – 30% of HS students sleep 1x/day Freud • Latent content-hidden meaning of a dream • Manifest content-surface content of a dream, might mask true meaning • Dream work-process which dreamer turns latent content into manifest content • Dream analysis-is to reverse process for dream work Freud • Dreams-unconscious wishes • Idiosyncratic-individual dreams • Universal-dreams common to all Non-Western • Many cultures more into dream analysis, sharing, importance Lucid Dreaming • Ability to control one’s dreams • Learned skill Hypnosis • Hypnos-Greek god of sleep • Altered state of awareness • Deep relation, susceptibility to suggestion – Changes in perception, memory motivation + self control Hypnosis • Hypnotizability – Degree to which the individual is responsive to standardized hypnotic suggestions • Hypnotic analgesia – Ability to reduce pain • Auto hypnosis – Self induced Meditation • Form of consciousness change designed to enhance self knowledge and well being by achieving a deep state of tranquility Hallucinations • Vivid perceptions that occur in the absence of objective stimulation Religious Ecstasy • Meditation, prayer, fasting, and spiritual communication Drugs • Psychoactive – Affect mental processes and behavior by temporarily changing conscious awareness of reality – Alter brain function Drugs • Tolerance – Greater amount required to achieve same effect Drugs • Physiological dependence – Body becomes adjusted to and dependent on substance Drugs • Addiction – Body must have, suffers pain/withdrawal Drugs • Psychological dependence – Need or craving for drug Learning • Conditional – The way in which events, stimuli and behavior become associated with one and other. Ex. Classical + operant Learning • Def-process that results in a relatively consistent change in behavior and is based on experience Ex. Improvement in performance, understanding, appreciation Learning • Learning performance distinction – The difference between what has been learned and what is expressed or performed in overt behavior Behaviorism • John Watson (1878-1958)-Psychology from the standpoint of a behaviorist – Observable behavior – Prediction and control of behavior – Baby Albert Watson • http://youtube.com/watch?v=KxKfpKQzow 8 Behaviorism • Skinner (1904-1990) Walden Two, Beyond Freedom + Dignity – Radical behaviorism – Environmental stimuli caused behavior Behaviorism • Area of psychology that focuses on the environmental determinants of learning behavior Classical Conditioning • Type of learning in which a behavior comes to be elicited by a stimulus that is acquired • It’s power through an association w/ a biologically significant stimulus Classical Conditioning • Founder Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) • Dog experiment • Reflex-unlearned response elicited by specific stimuli that have biological relevance for an organism Classical Conditioning • How the experiment worked – Unconditional stimulus (UCS) • Stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response Ex. Dog food – Unconditional response (CS) • Response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus w/ out prior training Ex. Dog salivates Classical Conditioning • Neutral stimulus – Stimulus that has no previous meaning Ex. Bell or light • Conditioned stimulus – Previous neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a condition response Ex. Bell elicits salvation • Conditioned Response – A response elicited by some previous neutral stimulus that results from pairing the neutral stimulus w/ an unconditional stimulus Classical Conditioning • Timing ( being contiguous) – CS+UCS must be paired closely for conditioning to work Classical Conditioning • Extinction – The weakening of conditioned association in the absence of a reinforcer or unconditioned stimuli Classical Conditioning • Spontaneous recovery – After a rest period or time out, w/out further exposure to the UCS there is a sudden reappearance of the CR when CS is presented Classical Conditioning • Stimulus generalization – Automatic extension of responding to stimuli that have never been paired w/original UCS • Stimulus discrimination – Respond differently to stimuli that are distinct from the CS on some dimension Acquisition • Robert Resorta (1966- ) – Proved need for condition procedure to be contiguous Acquisition • Leon Kamin (1969) – CS must be informative – Blocking • Organism doesn’t learn a new stimulus that signals an UCS because the new stimulus is presented simultaneously w/ a stimulus that is already effective as a signal Acquisition • Drug use and conditioning – Place of use important – Shepard Siegel (1982) Acquisition • Pychoneuroimmunology – Investigates interactions between psychological processes, such as response to stress + the functions of the immune system Operant Conditioning • Edward Thorndike (1898) – Puzzle boxes – Stimulus-response (S-R) connection • Cat’s claw at button opens door in puzzle box (freedom) – Law of effect • Law of learning that states the power of a stimulus to evoke a response is strengthened when the response is followed by a reward+weakened when it is not followed by a reward Operant Conditioning • B.F Skinner – Operant (affecting environment) • Behavior emitted by an organism that can be characterized in terms of the observable effects it has on the environment – Reinforcement contingency • Consistent relationship between a response and the changes in the environment that it produces Operant Conditioning • BF Skinner – Operant conditioning • Learning in which the probability of a response is changed by its consequences Skinner • http://youtube.com/watch?v=mm5FGrQEy BY Operant Conditioning • Reinforcer – Stimulus that, when made contingent upon a response, increases the probability of that response • Positive reinforcement – Behavior is followed by the presentation of an appetitve stimulus, increasing the probability of that behavior Operant Conditioning • Negative reinforcement – Behavior is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus, increasing the probability of that behavior Operant Conditioning • Operant extinction – Behavior no longer produces predictable consequences, returns to pre conditioned level • Punisher – Any stimulus that, when made contingent upon a response, decreases the probability of that response Operant Conditioning • Positive punishment – Behavior is followed by the presentation of an aversive stimulus, decreasing probability of a behavior Ex. spanking • Negative punishment – A behavior is followed by the removal of an appetitive stimulus, decreasing the probability of that behavior Ex. grounding Operant Conditioning • Discriminative stimuli Ex. Red light, green light – Stimuli that acts as predictors of reinforcement, signaling when particular behaviors will result in positive reinforcement Operant Conditioning • Three-term contingency – The means by which organisms learn that, in the presence of some stimuli but not others, their behavior is likely to have a particular effect on the environment Operant Conditioning • Primary reinforces – Food, water-biological needs • Conditioned enforcers (secondary) – Like in classical, formerly neutral stimuli have become reinforces Operant Conditioning • Premack Principle (1965) – A more probable activity can be used to reinforce a less probable one. EX. Kyla clean room/watch video Schedules of Reinforcement • Patterns of delivery and with holding reinforcement • Partial reinforcement – Response acquired under intermittent reinforcement are more difficult to extinguish than those acquired with continuous reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement • Fixed-ratio-reinforcer is delivered for the 1st response made after fixed number of responses Ex. Contract grading • Variable-ratio-reinforcer is delivered for the 1st response made after variable number of responses whose average is predetermined Ex. Slot machine Schedules of Reinforcement • Fixed interval-reinforcer is delivered for the 1st response made after fixed period of time ex. Pay check • Variable interval- reinforcer is delivered for the 1st response made after a variable period f time whose average is predetermined. Ex. Pop quizzes Schedules of Reinforcement • Shaping by successive approximations – Reinforce any response that successively approximates and ultimately matches desired response Biology + Learning • Biological constraints – limitations on learning imposed by species’ genetic endowment ex. Sensory, behavior, cognitive • Instinctual drift – The tendency for learned behavior to drift toward instinctual behavior ex. Raccoons, rubbing hands • Pias rooting Biology + Learning • Taste-aversion learning – John Garcia – Biological constraint on learning in which an organism learns in one trial to avoid food whose ingestion is followed by illness – Up to 12 hrs., one trial, permanent Cognitive Influences on Learning • Animal cognition – The cognitive capabilities of a nonhuman animals – Researchers trace the development of cognitive capabilities across species + the continuity of capabilities from nonhuman to human animals – Clever Hans (horse) Cognitive Influences on Learning • Cognitive map – Mental representation of physical space – Animals use spatial memory to recognize + identify features of the environment – Animals use spatial memory to find important goal objectives in their environment – Animals use spatial memory to plan their route through environment Cognitive Influences on Learning • Observational learning – Process of learning new response s by watching the behavior of another – Acquire large pattern, less trial + error Cognitive Influences on Learning • Observational learning – Bandura • Adults punch BoBo, children watching do the same Bandura • http://youtube.com/watch?v=BTB-I-L3YIE Cognitive Influences on Learning • Observational learning – Most influenced when: • It is seen as having reinforcing consequences • The models perceived positive liked and respected • Perceived similarities between features traits and traits of the model and observer • Observer is rewarded for paying attention to model • Models’ behavior is visible and salient • Is within observers range of competence Memory • The capacity to store and retrieve information • Ebbinghaus 1885 – German study on memory with nonsense syllables – Ebbinhaus’s forgetting curve Memory • Implicit – Availability of info through memory processes with out the extension of any conscious effort to encode or recover information • Explicit – Continuous effort to recover information through memory processes Memory • Declarative – memory for information such as facts and events • Procedural – Memory for how things get done, the way perceptual, cognitive and motor skills are acquired, retained and used Memory • Encoding – The process by which a mental representation is formed in memory • Storage – Retention of encoded material overtime • Retrieval – The recovery of stored information from memory Sensory Memory • Each sensory memory preserves accurate representations of the physical features of sensory stimuli for a few seconds or less • Ionic Memory – Sensory memory in visual domain Sensory Memory • Echoic Memory – Sensory memory that allow auditory information to be stored for brief durations • 5-10 seconds Short Term Memory STM • Memory process associated with preservation of recent experiences and with retrieval of information for long-term memory • Limited capacity, 7 bits/chunks (Miller 1956) Sensory Memory • Stores for short amount of time with out rehearsal working memory – Used to accomplish tasks such as reasoning and language comprehension – Phonological loop-holds and manipulates speech based issues – Visio spatial sketch pad-holds and manipulates visual spatial issues – Central executive-controls attention and coordinates info from phonological loop and Visio-spatial sketch pad – Working memory span 2.5 to 4 words STM Strategies • Maintenance rehearsal – Repeating in head • Chunking – Process of taking single items of information and recording them on the basis of similarity or some other organizing principle • Retrieval form (STM) – Very swift (Sternberg 1966) Long Term Memory LTM • Preservation of information for retrieval at any later time • Encoding specificity – Subsequent retrieval of info is enhanced if cues received at the time of recall are consistent with those present at the time of encoding ex. Doing homework Long Term Memory LTM • Serial position effect – Memory retrieval in which the recall of beginning and end items on a list is often better than recall of items appearing in the middle • Primary effect-start of list • Regency effect-end of list Long Term Memory LTM • Contextual distinctiveness – Serial position effects can be altered by the context and the distinctiveness of the experience being recalled Long Term Memory LTM • Recall – Method of retrieval in which an individual is required to reproduce the into previously presented • Recognition – Method of retrieval in which an individual is required to identify stimulus as having been experienced before Long Term Memory LTM • Retrieval cues – Internally or externally generated stimuli available to help with retrieval of a memory Long Term Memory LTM Endel Tulving (1972) Episodic Memory LT memories from autobiographical events and the context in which they occurred Semantic Memories generic categorical memories, such as the meaning of words and concepts Long Term Memory LTM • Interference – A memory phenomenon that occurs when retrieval cues do not point effectively to one specific memory • Proactive-forward acting • Retroactive-backward acting Long Term Memory LTM • Levels-of-Processing Theory – Deeper the level at which information was processed, the more likely it is to be retained Long Term Memory LTM • Transfer-appropriate processing – Memory is best when the type of processing carried out at encoding matches the process carried out at retrieval • Priming – In assessment of implicit memory the advantage conferred by prior exposure to a word or situation Improving Memory • Elaborative rehearsal – While memorizing you enrich the material • Mnemonics – Use familiar information during encoding of new information to enhance subsequent access to the info in memory • Metamemory – Implicit or explicit knowledge about memory abilities and effective memory strategies; cognition about memory Improving Memory • Cue familiarity hypothesis – People base their feelings of knowing on their familiarity of retrieval cues • Feelings of knowing – Subjective sensations that you do have info stored in memory that is accurate Improving Memory • Accessibility hypothesis – People base their judgment on the accessibility or availability of partial info from memory • Concepts – Mental representations of kinds or categories of items or ideas • Prototype – The most representative example of a category Improving Memory • Basic level – Level of categorization that can be retrieved from memory most quickly and used most efficiently • Schemes – General conceptual frameworks or clusters of knowledge, regarding objects, people, and situations – Knowledge packages that encode generalizations about structure of the environment Improving Memory • Reconstructive memory – Putting information together based on general types of stored knowledge in the absence of a specific memory representation – Bartlett (1932) • Leveling – simplifying • Sharpening- highlighting overemphasizing • Assimilating- changing details to better fit the tellers background • Eyewitness memory – Elizabeth Loft (1979, 1992) – Distorted by post event info Biological Aspects of Memory • Engram – The physical memory trace for information in the brain – Karl Lashlery (1929, 1950) – Widely distributed Biological Aspects of Memory • 4 majors brain structures in memory – 1. Cerebellum • Procedural memory • Memories acquired by repetition • Classical conditioning – 2. Striation • Habit formation • Stimulus response connections – Cerebral cortex • Sensory memories – Amygdala + hippocampus • Declarative memory of facts, dates, names, emotions Biological Aspects of Memory • Amnesia – Failure of memory over a long period of time • Brain Imaging – Positron-emission tomography (PET) – Functioning magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Cognitive Process • Higher mental process, such as perception memory, language, problem solving and abstract thinking • Cognition – Process of knowing – Attending, remembering and reasoning – Content of the process, such as concepts and memories Cognitive Process • Cognitive psychology – Study of higher mental processes – Including attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving and thinking Cognitive Process • Cognitive science – Interdisciplinary field study of the approach systems and processes that manipulate info Studying Cognition • FC Donders (1868) – Extra mental steps will often result in more time to perform a task • Serial process- two or more mental processes that are carried out in order, one after the other Studying Cognition • Parallel process – Two or more mental processes that are carried out simultaneously – Doing two things at once Studying Cognition • Controlled processes – Require attention – Difficult to do two at one time • Automatic processes – Does not require attention – Can be performed along with other task with out interferences Language Use • Language production – What people say sign and write as well as the process they go through to produce the messages • Audience design – Process of shaping a message depending on the audience for which it is intended Language Use • Cooperative principle – Paul Grice (1975) – Speak utterances appropriate to setting and meaning of ongoing conversation • Common ground – – – – – Herbbert Clark (1981) Common knowledge Community membership – in community Linguistic copresence-earlier talk Physical copresence-objects around Language Use • Spoonerism – Error in language – An exchange of the initial sounds of two or more words in a phrase or sentence • Ex. Messing up a tongue twister Language Use • Lexical – Lexicon or synonym for dictionary • Lexical ambiguity – Two meanings of word or sentence – I.e. ball – play with – go to Language Use • Understanding – Propositions (begins with) on, under etc. – Inferences • Missing in or filled in on the basis of a sample of evidence or on the basis of prior beliefs and theories Language Use • Language / Culture – Whorf, Sapir (1976) • Language habits of community influence meaning of language • Linguistic relativity-differences in language structures will lead to cognitive differences Language Use • Linguistic determinism – Structure of language influences or determines the way native speakers perceive and reason about the world Visual Cognition • Studies show we use visual imagery due to time/length of answers to questions • Problems solving – Thinking that is directed toward solving specific problems and that move from an initial state to a goal by means of a set of mental operations Problem Solving • Reasoning – The process of thinking in which conclusions are drawn from a set of facts – Thinking directed toward a given goal or objective • Problem space – Thinking that is directed toward solving specific problems and that move from an initial state to a goal by means of a set of mental operations Problem Solving • Algorithm – Step-by-step procedure that always provides the right answer for a particular type of problem • Heuristics – Strategies, often used shortcuts – “rules of thumb” Problem Solving • Think-aloud protocols – Verbal reports bye people solving mental processes • Functional fixedness – Inability to perceive a new use for an object previously associated with some other purpose – Adversely effects problems solving and creativity Problem Solving • Deductive Reasoning – Form of thinking in which one draws a conclusion that is intended to follow logically two or more statement or premises • Belief-bias effect – Person’s prior knowledge, attitudes or valves distort the reasoning process by influencing the person to accept invalid arguments – Believable conclusion Problem Solving • Inductive reasoning – A conclusion is made about the probability of some state of affairs based on the available evidence and past experience • Mental set – Tendency to response to a new problem in the manner used to response to a previous problem Judging and Deciding • Hubert Simon – Founding figure is cognitive Psychology – Human thinking powers are modes vs. the complexities of the environment – Judgment • Process by which people form decision reaching conclusions, and make critical evaluations of events and people based on available materials • Product of that mental activity – Decision making • Process of choosing between alternatives • Selecting or rejecting available options Judging and Deciding • Heuristics and Judgment – Amos Tversky and Danile Kahneman (1990’s) – Availability heuristics • Judgment based on the information readily available in memory – Moods affect available memory recall – Biased in memory recall Judging and Deciding • Representative heuristics – Assigns an object to a category on the basis of a few characteristics regarded as representative of that category • Anchoring heuristics – Insufficient adjustment up or down from an original starting valve when judging the probable valve of some event or outcome – Ex.salesman price $1-2k sell to you $500 Visual Cognition • Frame – Particular description of a choice – Perceptive from which a choice is described or framed affects how a decision is made and which options is ultimately exercised ex. $1000 raise is good unless you thought you were getting $10k raise Visual Cognition • Decision aversion – Tendency to avoid decision making – The tougher the decision, the greater the likelihood of decision aversion Psychological Assessment • Use of specified procedures to evaluate the abilities, behaviors and personal qualities of people • Measure individual differences History of assessment • China 4000 years ago • Sir Francis Galton (1869) Intelligence – Quantify intelligence ( measure ) – Intelligence- bell shaped curve, normal distribution – Could measure by test Formal Assessment • Systematic procedure and measurement instruments used by trained professionals to assess an individual’s functioning, aptitudes, abilities, or mental states. • Reliability – Degree to which test produces similar scores each time – Stability or consistency of the scores produced by an instrument Formal Assessment • Test-retest reliability – Measure of correlation between the scores of the same people of the same test given on two different occasions. Perfectly reliable to +1.00 – Correlations coefficient totally unreliable scores 0.00 Formal Assessment • Parallel forms – Different versions of a test used to assess reliability – The change of forms reduces affects of direct practice, memory or desire of an individual to stay consistent over time. Formal Assessment • Internal consistency – The degree to which a test yields similar scores across its different parts • Odds vs. evens • Split-half reliability – Measure of correlation between test taker’s performance on a different halves of test Validity • Extent to which a test measures what it was intended to measure. • Face validity – Degree to which test items appear to be directly related to the attribute the researcher wishes to measure-simple, straightforward Criterion Validity • Degree to which test scores indicate a result on a specific measure that is consistent with some other criterion of charities being assessed ex. High SAT=success in college • Predictive validity Norms • Standards based on measurements of a large group of people • Used for comparing the scores of an individual with those others with in a well defined group • Ex. IQ norm=100 Standardization • Set of uniform procedures for treating each participant in a test, interview, or experiment, or for recording data. Intelligence • The global capacity to profit from experience and to go beyond given information about the environment Intelligence Alfred Binet (1905) – 1st intelligence test – Measured mental age • Age at which a child is performing intellectually, expressed in terms of the average age at which normal children achieve a particular score – Chronological age • number of years/months since someone is born Alfred Binet • Four features to Binet’s approach – Estimate of current intelligence – Test children to see if they need help – Test to help find weak areas for additional help/training – Constructed test empirically IQ tests • Intelligence quotient • 1) Stanford Lewis-Binet – Terman (1916) • • • • • • Standardized Binet’s test for grammar school kids IQ=mental age divided by chronological age times 100 Updated frequently Norm 90-110 70 retarded 130 superior • 2) Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (1939) – David Wechsler – Combined non-verbal Theories of Intelligence Psychometrics • Field of psychology that specializes in mental testing • Factor analysis – Statistical procedure that detects a small number of dimensions clusters or factors with in a larger set of independent variables Psychometrics • G – Charles Spearman (1927) – The factor of general intelligence underlying all intelligent performance • S – Individual domain Psychometrics • Rayman Cattell (1963) – Fluid intelligence • Ability to see complex relationships and solve problems – Crystallized Intelligence • Knowledge a person has already acquired and the ability to access that knowledge • Vocabulary, arithmetic, general info Psychometrics • JP Gulliford 1961 – – – – Structure of intellect Content-type of information Product-form information is represented Operation-type of mental activity performed Psychometrics • Robert Sternberg (1988) – Componential Intelligence • Mental processes that underlie thinking and problem solving • Knowledge acquisition – Learning new facts • Performance components – Problem-solving strategies • Metacognative components – Selecting strategies and monitoring progress • Experimental intelligence » People’s ability to deal with novel and extreme problems • Contextual intelligences – Managing day to day affairs – Adapt, select, shape Howard Gardner (1983) – Multiple Intelligences • eight total Emotional Intelligence • EQ-Emotional Quotient • The ability to perceive, appraise and express emotions accurately and appropriately, use emotion to help thinking • Ability to analyze emotions regulates emotions to promote emotional growth Minority Groups • IQ’s- are lower in minorities with test available – Ex. Juke and Kallikak families – Today Latino and African Americans score lower Heredibility estimate • Statistical estimate of the degree of inheritance of a given trait or behavior, assessed by the degree of similarity between individuals who vary in their extent of genetic similarity • Older the higher the correlation • Identical twins highest Environment • Socioeconomic status • Parents education-mother specifically – Economics, health, educational resources Validity of IQ test • Good predictor of school, college and job success • Cultures Role – Stereotype threat • Threat associated with being at risk for confirming a negative stereotype of one’s group – Context not content of test is 00000an issue Creativity • Ability to generate ideas or products that are both novel and appropriate to the circumstances. • Divergent thinking – An ability to produce unusual but appropriate responses to problems – Up to IQ 120 ability increases, decreases after that • Mental illness in creativity i.e. Mania • Motivation an issue – Intrinsic key Assessment and Society • Cautions – Error free assessment – Ethical-shaping education – Labeling students Developmental Psychology • Psychology concerned with changes in physical and psychological functioning that occur from conception across the entire lifespan • Psychologist – How and why organisms change – Document and explain Stages • • • • • • • • Prenatal-conceptions to birth Infancy-birth to 18 months Early childhood-18 months to 6 yrs Late childhood-6 yrs to 13 yrs Adolescence-13 yrs to yrs Early Adult-20 yrs to 30 yrs Middle Adult-30 yrs to 65 yrs Late adult-65 yrs + Development • Passive, slow process Normative Investigation Research efforts designed to describe what is characteristic of a specific age or developmental stage finding landmarks Chronological Age • Months/yrs since birth Developmental Age • Chronological age at which most children show a particular level of physical or mental development Longitudinal design/study • Same individuals repeatedly observed and tested over time, often for many years Cross-sectional design • Groups of participants of different chronological ages are observed and compared at a given time Nature-nurture Controversy • Genetics vs. social • Heredity vs. social • John Locke – Empiricism – Blank slate, all learned • Jean Jacques Rousseau – Nativist – Nature or evolution • Jean marc Itard – Raised wild boy (12 year old) – 1st 5 yrs trained then stopped working Physical Development • Bodily changes, maturation, and growth that occur in a organism starting with conception and continuing across the life span • Zygote – Single cell – Sperm/egg Prenatal period • • • • 3 wks-heartbeat 1/6 in long 8 wks called fetus-movement 16 wks mom can feel 7 in long Brain growth 250,000 neurons/min – Drugs/alcohol abuse Birth • Can hear • Vision but improves – 3 dimensional, color • Elenor Gibson and Richard Walk (1960) – Visual cliff Physical • • • • Head 60% grown @ birth Weight doubles 6 months Weight triples 1 year Age 2 trunk is 50% of adult size Maturation • Continuing influence of heredity throughout development • Age-related physical and behavioral changes characteristic of a species • Roll over 3 moths • Sit up 5 moths • Crawl 10 months • Walk 12 months Puberty • Attainment of sexual maturity • Girls menarche • Boys production of live sperm and ability to ejaculate • Body image – Subjective view of appearance of one’s body – Issues-anorexia/bulimia Adulthood • Gradual changes into and through adult hood • Vision and hearing decline • Reproductive and sexual functioning – Menopause age 50, women – Viable sperms drops age 40, fluid drops age 60 – Does not drop after 40 if health and relationship Cognitive Development • Process of knowing, imagining, perceiving reasoning, and problems solving Jean Piaget (1929-1977) • Schemes – Mental structures that enable individuals to interpret the world • Assimilation – Modify new environmental information to fit into what is already • Accommodation – Restructuring or modifying cognitive structures so that new information can fit into them more easily Stages of Cognitive Development • (0-2) sensory motor – Child uses body and senses – Object permanence (3 moths-8 months) • Objects exist independent of individuals’ action or awareness • Representational thought – Renee Baillargeon (1991) » Possible object permanence earlier 3 than months Object Permanence • http://youtube.com/watch?v=NjBh9ld_yIo Stages of Cognitive Development • (2-7) Preoperational – Child begins to use mental images or symbols to understand things – Egocentrism • Cannot take perspective of another person – Centrism • Early• Child’s inability to take more than one perceptual factor into account @ the same time – Conservation • Physical properties don’t change when nothing is added or taken away Conservation • http://youtube.com/watch?v=YtLEWVu815 o Stages of Cognitive Development • Concrete operational stage (7-11) – Able to use logical schemes but limited to concrete objects Stages of Cognitive Development • Formal operational (11+) – Able to solve abstract problems Foundational theories • Frameworks for initial understanding formulated by children to explain their experiences of the world • All ages Social and cultural influences on cognitive dev. • Internalization – process through which children absorb knowledge from social context – Lev Vygotsky – Formal operations cultural Cognitive Dev. In Adults • No evidence of intellectual decline in elderly • Crystallized vs. fluid intelligence – Verbal schooling vs. learn quickly and thoroughly – Fluid declines with age – John Horn Wisdom • Expertise in the fundamental pragmatics of life Use it or lose it • Important with age • Warner Schaie 1994 Selective optimization with compensation • Strategy for successful aging in which one makes the most of gains while minimizing the impact of losses that accompany normal aging • Paul Bates and Margaret Baltes (1998) Alzheimer’s Disease • A chronic organic brain syndrome characterized by gradual loss of memory, decline in intellectual ability and deterioration of personality • Over 65-10% • Over 85-50% Language • Born with innate capacity Structures • Until 8 months no distinction between phonemes due to language ex. (L) ( R) in Japanese • Child-directed speech – Special form of speech with an exaggerated and high-pitched infonation that adults use to speak to infants and young children – Learn names by 5 months Word meaning • • • • • 18 months (word explosion) Age 6 14,000 words 9 words/ day Overextension ex. Milk means all drinks Mutually exclusive – Each object has only one label ex. Fire engine/truck/vehicle Grammar • Norm Chomsky (1976) • Born with mental structures that facilitate comprehension and production of language ex. Deaf people learn grammar Grammar • Language-making capacity – Innate guidelines or operating principles that children bring to the task of learning a language – Dan Slobin (1985) • Keep track of order and meaning expressed in language • Telegraphic speech – Leaves out verbs, gets point across – For adult to understand must understand context – Example for language making capacity • Overregularization – Grammar error, rules of language are applied too widely – Ex. By adding/ed/ makes past tense add “ed” to do and break or add /s/ to foot Social Development • Ways individuals’ social interactions and expectations change across the lifespan. • Culture and environment play large role • Psychosocial stages – Erik Erikson – Successive developmental stages that focus on an individual’s orientation toward self and others – Incorporate both the sexual and social aspects of a person’s development and the social conflicts that arise from the interactions between the individual and the social environment Socialization • Lifelong process whereby an individual’s behavior patterns, values, standards, attitudes, and motives are shaped to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society • Involves friends, relatives, teachers, etc. who exert pressure on individual Attachment • Emotional relationship between a child and the regular caregiver • Early survival • Imprinting – Conrad Lorenz (geese) – Primitive form of learning in which some infant animals physically follow and form an attachment to the first moving object they see or hear Attachment • Proximity-prompting signals – Baby smiling, crying and vocalizing to signal need for care • John Bowl (1973) Attachment • Strange situation test – Mary Ainsworth (1978) – Age 1-2 – Securely attached child • Some distress when parent leaves room, seeks comfort when parent returns - returns to play – Insecurely attached-avoidant • Aloof may avoid parent upon return – Insecurely attached-ambivalent resistant • Becomes upset anxious when parent leaves, upon parent return hard to sooth, shows anger towards parent – Can predict later behavior Parenting Styles • Manner in which parents rear their children – Authoritative seen as best – Authoritarian type • Parents apply discipline with little attention to child's autonomy – Indulgent type • Parents helpful but fail to teach rules about structure or society – Neglecting or permissive type • No discipline, non responsive to child’s individuality Parenting Practices • Behaviors that arise in response to particular parent goals Contact Comfort • Harry Harlow (1965) – Did not believe in going cupboard theory-attachment due to feeling • Comfort derived from an infant’s physical contact with the mother of caregiver • Reuses Monkeys Experiment – Choose contact comfort over food • Other studies show orphaned infants with proper food/water etc. die due to lack of contact Harlow • http://youtube.com/watch?v=fLrBrk9DXVk Social Development in Adolescence • Time of “storm and stress”-myth • Margaret Mead(1928) and Ruth Benedict(1938) – Argue this to be mainly in Western Culture Social Development in Adults • Intimacy and generativity Erikson • Lieben and Arbeiten or love and workFreud • Love and Belonging- Maslow • Women's health effected by how good marriage is Social Development in Adults • Selective social interaction theory – As people age, they become more selective in choosing social partners who satisfy their social needs – Laura Carstensen (1998) • Helps conserve energy, protects • Ageism – Prejudice against older people • Decremental aging – By number not ability Gender Development Sex differences • Biologically based characteristics that distinguish males and females • Hormones and anatomy Gender • Psychological phenomenon that refers to learned sex related behaviors and attitude of males and females Gender Identity • One’s sense of maleness or femaleness • Awareness and acceptance of one's biological sex Gender Roles • Set of behaviors and attitudes associated by society with being male or female and expressed publicly by the individual • Acquisition – Parents play role – Eleanor Maccoby • Children seek out same sex to play with Moral Development Morality • System of beliefs and values that ensures that individuals will keep their obligations to others in society and will behave in ways that do not interfere with the rights and interests of others Lawrence Kohlberg (1965, 1981) • Moral reasoning • Ties into Piagets cognitive abilities • 4 principles of Kohlberg’s stage model – – – – 1. At any given time you can only be at one level 2. Everyone goes through stages in fixed order 3. Each stage gets more complex and comprehensive 4. Same stages occur across culture Critique to Kohlberg • Only boys studied-Carol Gilligan (1982) – Level of differences between the sexes – I.e. caring nature of female – Cultural differences Motivation • Process of starting, directing and maintaining physical and psychological activities • Mechanisms involved in preferences for one activity over another and the vigor and persistence of responses • Latin movere- “to move” Motivational Concepts • Relate biology to behavior • Account for behavioral variability • Infer private states from public acts – Intrinsic or external • Assign responsibility for action • Explain perseverance despite adversity Sources of Motivation • Drives – Internal states that arise in response to disequalibrium in an animal's physiological needs – Clark Hull (1952) – Need for homeostasis • Constancy or equilibrium of the internal conditions of the body – Respond to tensions in body Sources of Motivation • Incentives – External stimuli or rewards that motivate behavior although they do not relate directly to biological needs Sources of Motivation • Reversal theory – Explains human motivation in terms of reversals from one to the other opposing metamotivational states – Michael Apter (1989) – Rejects tension idea Sources of Motivation • Instincts – Preprogrammed tendencies that are essential to a species' survival – Ex. Salmon – William James (1890) • Social-sympathy, modesty love – Sigmund Freud (1915) • Life instincts (sex drive) Sources of Motivation • Expectations+Cognitive – What you do now is motivated by past experience – Social learning theory • Role of observation and the imitation of behaviors observed in others – Fritz Heider (1958) • Dispositional forces-lack of effort, intelligence • Situational forces-unfair situation Eating • • • • Direct internal food need Initiate + organize eating behavior Monitor the quantity + quality of food Detect when enough food has been consumed + stop eating Peripheral responses • Ie. Stomach – Walter Cannon (1934) • Empty stomach caused hunger • Swallowed a balloon – People w/ removed stomachs still were hungry – Foods high in proteins+calories are more satisfying than low-cal+low protein Central responses • Lateral hypothalamus (LH) – Hunger center • Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) – Satiety center • After some time not totally true, type of food makes diff. Psychology of eating • Janet Polovy + Peter Herman (1975) – Restrained eaters • Put limits on how much food – Unrestrained eaters • No limit – Anxiety affects retrained eaters more Eating Disorders • Individual weights less than 85% of their expected weight but still controls eating because of self-perception of obesity Bulimia nervosa • Binge eating followed by measures to purge body of excess calories • Vomiting, fasting, laxatives, exercise Sexual Behaviors Reproduction • Hormones-selected by gonads – Males-androgens • Present all the time – Females-estrogen • Present according to cycles • Pheromones – Chemical signals to attract suitors Sexual Arousal • Male-testosterone • Female-based on cycle • The motivational state of excitement + tension brought about by physiological+cognitive reaction to erotic stimuli William Masters+Virginia Johnson (1979) • Studied in lab thousands of volunteers about sex • Conclusions – Men + women have similar patterns of sexual response – Sex response cycles similar but women response slower+remained aroused longer – Women multiple organism men usually do not – penis size not important in sexual performance William Masters+Virginia Johnson (1979) • Human sexual response cycle – Excitement, plateau, organism, resolution William Masters+Virginia Johnson (1979) • Excitement – Few minutes up to more than an hour – Blood vessels in pubic region • Orgasm – Very intense pleasure – Contraction on every .8 of a second – Male-ejaculation William Masters+Virginia Johnson (1979) • Plateau – Level of arousal reached – Muscle tension, rapid heart beat • Resolution – Body gradually returns to normal Sexual Norm • Alfred Kinsey 1940’s – Interviewed 17,000 Americans about sexual behaviors – Norms change over time – Sexual scripts • Socially learned programs of sexual responsiveness (culture) • What to do? W/ whom? Why? • Ex. Date Rate Homosexuality • • • • 4-6% say they are attracted to same sex 2% act on it Genetic link (w/ twin studies) Daryl Bem (2000) – Sex play – Childhood experiences Homosexuality • Homophobia – Negative attitude towards gay people • 1973 removed homosexuality from list of disorders – Disorders were caused by society Personal Achievement Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) • David McCelland (1953) • Projective test in which pictures of ambiguous scenes are presented to an individual, who is encouraged to generate stories about them Need for Achievement (nAch) • Assumed basic human need to strive for achievement of goals that motivates a wide range of behaviors + thinking • Higher nAch make more $ Attributions of success + failure • Locus of control – Intrinsic vs. extrinsic – Global vs. specific • Attribution – Judgment about the causes of outcomes Attributions of success + failure • Optimistic – external • Pessimistic – internal Organizational Psychology • Psychologists who study various aspects of the human work environment – Communication, leadership, job satisfaction stress, burnout • Equity theory – Workers are motivated to maintain fair+equitable relationships w/ other relevant persons outcome= to input Organizational Psychology • Expectancy Theory- do desired work – Cognitive theory of work motivation that proposes that workers are motivated when they expect their efforts+job performance to result in desired outcomes Organizational Psychology • 3 compounds of expectancy theory – Perceived likelihood that a worker’s efforts will result in a certain level of performance – Instrumentality refers to the perception that performance will lead to certain outcomes/rewards – Valence refers to the perceived attractiveness of particular outcomes Hierarchy of Needs • Maslow’s view of basic human motives – Lower needs to be met to move up – Biological, safety, attachment, esteem, cognitive esthetic, self actualization Emotions • Complex patterns of changes, including physiological arousal, feelings, cognitive process, and behavioral reactions, made in response to a situation perceived to be personally significant Darwin (1872) • Adaptive functions of emotions • Inherited, specialized mental states designed to deal with a certain class of recurring situations Silvan Tomkins (1981) • Universal emotions • Babies scared by loud noises – Cross culture Paul Eleman (1984) • People share an overlap in “facial expressions” cross culturally Cultural Constraints • Emotions vary due to culture • Individualistic – Needs of individuals-personal rewards, freedoms, equity • Collectivist – Need of group • Self-discipline, honoring parents/elders Theories • Physiology – Heart rate, respiration increases, muscle tense, shake, dry mouth • Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) – Sympathetic-pleasant, releases hormones – Parasympthetic-mildly unpleasant Theories • Central Nervous System – Hypothalamus and limbic systems • Emotions for attack, defense and flight – Amygdala (one on each side of brain) • Part of limbic system that controls emotion aggression and the formation of emotional memory – Cortex • Connects emotions and external body • Association, memories and meaning into physical responses James-Lange Theory of Emotion (1890, 1950) • Peripheralist theory – Peripheral-feedback theory of emotion stating that an eliciting stimulus triggers a behavior response that sends different sensory and motor feedback to the brain and creates the feeling of a specific emotion. Cannon-Bard theory (1929) • An emotional stimulus produces two cooccurring reactions-arousal and experience of emotion that do not cause each other Cognitive Appraisal • Stanley Schachter 1971 • The process through which physiological arousal is interpreted with respect to circumstances in the particular setting in which it is being experienced • Recognition and evaluation of a stress or to assess the demand, the size of threat, the resources available for dealing with it, and appropriate coping strategies Cognitive Appraisal Theory of Emotion • Richard Lazarus (1984) • Experience of emotion is the joint effect of physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal, which serves to determine how an ambiguous inner state of arousal will be labeled • Lacked conscious thought Function of Emotion • Direct and sustain your behavior toward a goal • Inverted U – Relationship between arousal and performance Function of Emotion • Yerkes-Dodson Law – Correlation between task performance and optimal level of arousal – Simple task: less arousal-more difficult task greater arousal Function of Emotion • Social functioning • Cognitive functioning – Mood congruent processing – Mood state • Positive moods yield creativity/problem solving • Negative moods yield opposite Stress • Pattern of specific and nonspecific responses an organism makes to stimulus events that disturb its equilibrium and tax or exceed its ability to cope Stressor • Internal or external event or stimulus that induces stress Chronic • Continuous state of arousal in which an individual perceives demands as greater than the inner and outer resources available for dealing with them. Acute • Transient state of arousal with typically clear onset and offset patterns Acute • Walter Cannon (1920) – Fight or Flight • Internal activates triggered when an organism is faced with a threat • Prepares the body for combat and struggle or for running to safety • More of a male trait Shelly Tyler (2000) • Tend-and-befriend response – Typically female – Stressors prompt females to protect their offspring and join social groups to reduce vulnerability Shelly Tyler (2000) • Hypothalamus – Stress center – Controls ANS and pituitary gland • Adrenal Medulla (hormones) – Epinephrine and neuroepinephrine • Start body functions • Pituitary Gland – Thyrotroph (hormone) – Adrenocorticotrohpic (hormone) Hans Selye (1976) • General adoption syndrome (GAS) – Pattern of nonspecific adaptional physiological mechanism that occur in response to continuing threat by almost any serious stressor – Psychosomatic disorders • Psychical disorders activated or caused by prolonged emotional stress or other psychological causes Psychological stress • Social readjustment rating scale (SRRS)(1960) – Scale to rate the degree of adjustment and required by various life changes-both pleasant and unpleasant – Life change units (LCU’s) • Measure of stress levels of different types of change experienced during a given period Psychological stress • Procrastinators have more stress symptoms than do nonprocrastinators • Catastrophic events – Emergency phase-1st 3 weeks • Anxiety, obsessive thoughts – Inhibition phase-3-8 weeks • Sudden decline in thought/talk – Adaption phase 9+ weeks • Psychological effect over Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) • Anxiety disorder • Persistent reexperience of traumatic events through dreams, hallucinations or flashbacks Residual Stress Pattern • Chronic syndrome in which the emotional responses of PTSD stress persist over time Hassles • More hassles lead to greater health problems Coping • Process of dealing with internal or external demands that are perceived to be threatening or overwhelming Richard Lazarus • Primary appraisal – Initial evaluation of the seriousness of a demand • Secondary appraisal – Evaluate the personal and social resources that are available Stress Moderator variables • Variables that change the impact of a stressor on a given type of stress reaction Anticipatory coping-Folkman (1984) • Efforts made in advance of a potentially stressful event to overcome, reduce, or tolerate the imbalance between perceived demands and available resources • Problem directed coping – Confront problem directly – Problem solving directly • Emotion focused coping – Lessen the discomfort Modifying cognitive strategies • Reap praise • Restructure Donald Meichenbaum (1977-93) • Stress inoculation – People work to develop a greater awareness of their actual behavior – People begin to identify new behaviors – People appraise consequences new behaviors Perceived control • The belief that one has the ability to make a difference in the course or consequences of some event or experience Social support • Resources, including material aid, socioemotional support provided to help w/ stress Love, money, advice, housing, etc. Health Psychology • Understanding the ways people stay healthy, the reasons they become ill, and the ways they respond when the become ill. Health • General condition of soundness and vigor of body and mind • Not simply the absence of illness or injury Hozho • Navajo concept • Refers to harmony, peace of mind, goodness, ideal family relationships, beauty in arts and crafts, and health of body and spirit • Illness is seen as disharmony Biomedical Model • Dualistic body and mind • Mind body separation • Interactions made model unworkable Biopsychosocial model • Model of health and illness that suggests that links among the nervous system, the immune system, behavioral systems cognitive processing and environmental factors can put people at risk for sickness Biopsychosocial model • 3 components – Bio, psycho, social – Links mind, body and world around you Wellness • Optimal health • Incorporating the ability to function fully and actively over the physical, intellectual, emotional, spiritual, social and environmental domains of health Health Promotion • Development and implementation of general strategies and specific tactics to eliminate or reduce the risk that people will become ill AIDS • Acquired immune deficiency syndrome • Virus that damages the immune system and weakens the body's ability to fight infection HIV • Human immunodefiency virus • Virus that attacks white blood cells (T cells) in human blood • Causes AIDS • Transmitting – Semen/blood sexual contact – IV drug use – Not airborne Fighting AIDS • Information/education • Motivation • Behavioral skills Treatment • Too little focus on in our society • Need clear communication from health care professions • Using mind to heal Relaxation Response • Condition in which muscle tension, cortical activity, heart rate, and blood pressure decrease and breathing slows • Needs – – – – Quiet environment Closed eyes Comfortable position Repetitive mental device i.e. chant Biofeedback • Self-regulatory technique by which an individual acquires voluntary control over nonconscious biological process i.e. blood pressure – Neal Miller (1978) – Can change skin temp. Breast Cancer study • 18.9 months with medical treatment • 36.6 months with medical treatment and therapy Secrets • James Pennebaker (1990) • Confessing leads to better health • Arthritis study Job Burnout • Emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and reduced personal accomplishments, often brought on by job related stress Nine Steps for healthy foundation • Never say bad things about yourself • Compare your reactions, thought and feelings with those close to you • Have several close friends to share with Nine Steps for healthy foundation • Balance time – Future-work to be done – Present-goal is achieved • Pleasure at hand – Past-in touch with roots Nine Steps for healthy foundation • Take full credit for happiness and success • When losing control of emotions take step back/away • Failure and disappointment can be blessing in disguise • If you cannot help yourself or others get professional help • Cultivate happy pleasures Personality Types • A-excessive emphasis on competition, aggression, impatience, and hostilityincrease heart disease risk • B-less competitive, less aggressive, less hostile-more mellow • C-passive acceptance and self sacrifice-puts too much onto self – Larger cancer risk Personality Phrenology • Study of skull shape/bumps Goal • Categorize people • Predictions about people • Specify differences among people Personality Defined • Unique psychological qualities of an individual that influences a variety of characteristic behavior pattern across different situations over time Personality Types • Distinct patterns of personality characteristics used to assign people to categories • Qualitative differences rather than differences in degree, used to discriminate among people Hippocrates (5 BC) • 1st to introduced personality types • Types: Blood, Phlegm, Black Bile, Yellow Bile William Sheldon (1942) • Physique to temperament – Endomorphic (fat, soft, round) • Relaxed sociable – Mesomorphic (muscular, strong, rectangular) • Energy, courage, assertive – Ectomorphic (thin, long, fragile) • Brainy, artistic, introverted Frank Sulloway (1996) • Birth order – 1st or only-niche already made – 2nd born-need to create niche Traits • Enduring personal qualities or attributes that influence behavior across situations Gordon Alport (1937-1966) • Cardinal traits – What person organizes their life around • Central traits – Represent major characteristics of a person • Secondary traits – Specific personal features “The same fire that melts butter hardens the egg” Hans Esenck (1973-1990) • Extraversion – Internally vs. externally orientated • Neuroticism – Emotionally stable vs. unstable • Psychoticism – Kind/considerate vs. aggressive/antisocial 5 factor model • Extraversion – Talkative, energetic, assertive vs. introversion-quiet, shy, reserved • Agreeable – Sympathetic, kind and affectionate vs. cold quarrelsome and cruel • Conscientiousness – Organized, responsible and cautious vs. careless, frivolous and irresponsible 5 factor model • Neuroticism – Stable, calm and contented vs. anxious, unstable and temporal • Openness to experience – Creative, intellectual and open minded vs. simple, shallow, and unintelligent Trait Habitability • Influenced by genetic factors (twin studies) Traits and Predictions • Consistency paradox – Observation that personality ratings across time+among different observers are consistent, while behavior rating across situations are not consistent Traits and Predictions • Areas of predictability – Cognitive, social, self regulatory, physical strength, motor coordination • Shyness – Individuals discomfort and or inhibition in interpersonal situations that interferes with pursuing interpersonal or professional goals – Born, nurture, cultural, technological Psychodynamic Theories • Assume that personality is shaped by and behavior is motivated by powerful inner forces • Freud’s Drivers • Eros – Sexual urges, preserves species • Libido – Psychic energy that drives individuals toward sensual pleasures of al types, especially sexual ones • Thantos – Self-preservation Psychosexual Stages of Development • Oral (0-1) • Anal (2-3) • Phallic (4-5) – Oedipal / Electra complexes • Latency (6-12) • Genital (13-18) – Fixation-person remains attached to objects or activities more appropriate for an earlier stage of psychosexual development Psycho Determinism • Mental and behavioral reactions are determined by previous experiences Unconscious • Domain of psyche that stores repressed urges and primitive impulses Freud’s Personality Structure • Id – Primitive unconscious part of the personality that operates irrationality and acts on impulse to purse pleasure Freud’s Personality Structure • Superego – Represents the internalization of society’s values, standards and morals Freud’s Personality Structure • Ego – – – – Reality principle Conscious Moderates Id/Superego Self preservation, directs instinctual drives, urges into appropriate channels Ego Defense • Mental strategies used by the ego to defend itself against conflicts experienced in the normal course of life • Anxiety – Intense emotional response caused by the preconscious recognition that a repressed conflict is about to emerge into consciousness Post-Freudian Theories (NeoFreudians) • Emphasis on Ego: Function, defenses, development of self, conscious thought processes and personal mastery • Added social variables (culture, family) • Less emphasis on sexual energy • Life span beyond childhood Alfred Adler (1929) • Inferiority complex – Driven by feelings of inferiority Karen Horney (1939) • Challenged Freud's issues on the focus of the penis Carl Jung (1959) • Collective unconscious – Part of the individual’s unconscious that is inherited, evolutionarily developed and common to all members of the species Carl Jung (1959) • Archetypes – Universal, inherited, primitive and symbolic representation of a particular experience or object Carl Jung (1959) • Analytic Psychology – Branch of psychology that views the person as a constellation of compensatory internal forces in a dynamic balance Humanistic Theories • Humans naturally good, striving for self actualization (Maslow) – Person’s constant striving to realize his or their own potential and to develop inherent talents and capabilities • Unique tendencies Carl Rogers (1947-77) • Organism • Self • Conditional positive regard – Given to people with conditioning • Unconditional positive regard – Complete love and acceptance of an individual by another person – No conditions attached Karen Horney (1950) • “real self” – Need favorable atmosphere to develop • Warmth, goodwill, love – Get away from due to anxiety • Idealized self image “search for glory” • Tyranny of should – I.e. beautiful, perfect, etc. Karen Horney (1950) • Holistic-separate acts as part of whole personality Karen Horney (1950) • Dispositional-focus on inner qualities that create actions Karen Horney (1950) • Phenomenological-individuals frame of reference Karen Horney (1950) • Existential – Rollo May (1995) – Higher mental processes Karen Horney (1950) • Psychobiography-these use of psychological theory to describe and explain an individual’s course through out life – Life story Social Learning and Cognitive Theories • Look at environmental factors • Social imitation • How we use or mental (mind) to manipulate the environment Walter Mischel (1995) • How behavior arises as a function of interactions between persons and situations Albert Bandura (1986) • Reciprocal determinism – Complex reciprocal interaction exists among the individual, his or her behavior, and environment all stimuli and that of each of these components affects the others Albert Bandura (1986) • Self-efficacy – Set of beliefs that one can perform adequately in a particular situations – Includes perceptions, motivations – Judgments • Vicarious experiences – View of others performances • Persuasion – Others convince you • Monitoring yourself (emotional) Albert Bandura (1986) • Outcome-based expectations (environmental) – Expectations of failure or success – Kind environment might try harder Nancy Cantor (1987) • Social intelligence – Refers to expertise people bring to their experience of life task Nancy Cantor (1987) • 3 types of social intelligence – Choice of life • What is important to you – Knowledge relevant to social interactions • Level of expertise – Strategies for implementing goals • Problems solving strategies are all different Criticisms of Social/Cognitive Theories • Overlook emotions • Vagueness of explanation about the person’s constructs and competencies are created Self Theories William James (1890) • Material me – body, physical • Spiritual me – thoughts, feelings • Social me – how others view you Self Concept • Person’s mental model of his or her abilities and attributes – Motivates, interprets, organizes, mediates, regulates behavior Hazel Markus (1986) • Possible selves – Ideal selves that a person would like to becomes the selves a person could become and the selves a person is afraid of becoming – Components of the cognitive sense of self – Motivate you Self-Esteem • Generalized evaluative attitude toward the self that influences both moods and behaviors and that exerts a powerful effect on a range of personal and social behaviors Self-Esteem • Self handicapping – Process of developing in anticipation of failure, behavioral reactions and explanations that minimize ability deficits as possible attributions for failure – Ready made excuses – More likely when outcome will be public Cultural Construction of self • Western self – Individualistic 30% Independent Construal of Self • Orientated around one’s thoughts feelings and actions • Collectivists 70% Independent Construal of Self • Collectivists – Needs of the group – Interdependent construal of self • Encompassing social relationships • Recognized that one’s behavior is determined, contingent on and to a large extent organized by what the actor perceives to be the thoughts, feelings and actions of others Twenty Statements Test (TST) 1934 • Kohn and McPartland – 20 different answers to “Who am I?” • Categories answers – Social, ideological, interests, ambitions, self-evaluations Comparing Personality Theories • • • • • • Heredity vs. Environmental (Nature/nurture) Learning Process vs. Innate Laws of Behavior Modified through society vs. internal time table Emphasis on past, present, future Consciousness vs. unconsciousness Inner disposition vs. other situation Assessment of Personality • Personality inventory – Self report questionnaire used for personality assessment – Includes a series of items about personal thoughts, feelings and behaviors – Most common • Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) • 10-15 clinical scales • I.e. anxiety, type A, self esteem, anger bizarre Neo-PI • Neurotic, Extraversion, openness, agreeable conscientiousness Projective Tests • A standardized set of ambiguous, abstract stimuli is presented and asked to interpret their meanings • Response reveals inner feelings, motives, conflicts • 1st used to get into unconscious • Rorschach – Hermann Rorschach 1921 • Ink blots – Location – Content – determinants Therapeutic Appreciation Test (TAT) • Henry Murray 1938 – Ambiguous scenes asked to make up stories about it Abnormal Psychology Concerned with understanding the nature of individual pathologies of mind, mood and behavior Criteria for “Abnormal” Label • • • • • • • Distress or disability Maladaptive Irrationality Unconventionality and statistically rare Violation of moral and ideal standards Unpredictability Observer discomfort Mental health • Should be thought of on a continuum Phileppe Pinel (1745-1826) • People were sick not possessed • Medical model • Disorders classified by similarities – Emil Kraepelin (1855-1926) • Put first type of system together Frans Mesmer(1734-1815) • Psychological disorders were caused by disruptions in flow of animal magnetism – Used hypnotism for the first time Jean Charcot(1825-1893) • Used hypnotism with hysteria • Freud’s teacher Etiology • Causes or factors related to the development of a disorder Etiology • Biological approach – Structural brain abnormalities, genetic factors, or brain injury Etiology • Psychological approaches – Psychodynamic theory • Freud, unconscious – Behavioral • Skinner external reinforcement – Cognitive • Way people perceive reinforcement – Sociocultural • cultural Diagnosis • Label given to a psychological abnormality by classifying and categorizing the observed behavior pattern into an approved diagnostic system Goals • Quick and clear understanding among professionals • Understanding of etiology • Treatment plan DSM-IV-TR(1994) TR(2004) • “Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders • Classifies and describes over 200 disorders • Description of patters and symptoms • DSM I (1952) DSM II (1968) DMS III-R (1987) • Five axes Dropped 1980 DSM III • Neurotic disorders – Person does not have signs of brain abnormalities and does not display grossly irrational thinking or violate basic norms but does experience subjective distress Dropped 1980 DSM III • Psychotic disorders – Person experiences impairments in reality testing manifested through thought, emotional or perceptual difficulties Others removed • Homosexuality (1973) • Insanity – Legal term, not clinical – State of mind of an individual judged to be legally incompetent Comorbidity • Experience of more than one disorder at the same time – 56% of the time Psychopathological functioning • Disruptions in emotional behavior or thought process that lead to distress or block one’s ability to achieve important goals Anxiety Disorders • Physiological arousal, feelings of tension and intense apprehension without apparent reason. Anxiety Disorders • Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) – Individual feels anxious and worried most of the time – Minimum of six months – Not threatened by any specific danger or object – Muscle tension, fatigue, restlessness, poor concentration, irritability, sleep disturbances Anxiety Disorders • Panic disorder – Experience unexpected, severe panic attacks that begin with a feeling of intense apprehension fear or terror – Other symptoms • Anxiety, rapid heart rate, dizziness, faintness, chocking, smothering Anxiety Disorders • Agoraphobia – Extreme fear of being in public places or open spaces from which escape may be difficult or embarrassing Anxiety Disorders • Phobias – Persistent and irrational fear of a specific object, activity or situation that is excessive and unreasonable, given the reality of the threat – Social • Persistent and irrational fear of a specific object, activity or situation that is excessive and unreasonable, given the reality of the threat – Specific • Response to specific types of objects or situations Anxiety Disorders • Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) – Obsessions • Thoughts, images, impulses – Compulsions • Repetitive, purposeful – Person knows their acts are irrational but cannot stop Anxiety Disorders • Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – Persistent reexperience of traumatic events through distressing recollections, dreams, hallucinations or dissociative flashback – Usually suffer from depression substance abuse and sexual dysfunction – Approx. 8% – More women than men Anxiety Disorders • Causes – – – – Biological Psychodynamic (unconscious) Behavioral cognitive Mood Disorders • Disturbance such as severe depression or depression alternating with manic Mood Disorders • Major Depressive Disorder – Intense feelings of depression over an extended time – No manic behavior – Characteristics • • • • Dysphoric (sad) Appetite Sleep Concentration Motor activity Suicide Guilt Mood Disorders • Bipolar Disorder – Alternating periods of depression and mania, can be irritable – Manic episode • Periods of extreme elation unbounded euphoria without sufficient reason and grandiose thoughts or feelings about persons ability • Inflated self-esteem • Special abilities or powers Mood Disorders • Causes – Biological • Drugs work • PET scans of brains • Cerebral glucose levels higher during manic episodes – Genetic • Twin studies 67% – SAD • Lighting due to seasons Mood Disorders • Cognitive – Aaron Beck (1988) – “Set” • Pattern of seeing the world – Negative view of self, ongoing experience and future Mood Disorders • Martin Selifman – Learned Helplessness • General pattern on nonresponding in the presence of noxious stimuli that often follows after an organism has previously experienced non contingent inescapable aversive stimuli • Motivation deficits • Emotional deficits • Cognitive deficits Mood Disorders • Gender – Women twice as often • Think about causes • Men distract themselves Mood Disorders • Suicide – 50%-80% of people who attempt suffer from depression Personality Disorder • A chronic, inflexible, maladaptive patter of perceiving, thinking and behaving that seriously impairs an individual’s ability to function in social or other settings • Ten types Personality Disorder • Paranoid- distrustful and suspicious • Histrionic- excessive emotionality and attention seeking • Narcissistic- grandiose sense of selfimportance, fantasy or power • Antisocial- sociopath, long pattern of law breaking • Borderline- inability to keep relationships Dissociative Disorders • Disturbance in the integration of identity, memory or consciousness • Usually due to severe abuse Dissociative Disorders • Dissociative Identity Disorder – Formerly multiple personality disorder – Two or more distinct personalities exist within the same individual – The host –main – The alters- others Dissociative Disorders • Dissociative Amnesia – Inability to remember important personal experiences caused by psychological factors • Dissociative Fuge – Memory loss with flight Schizophrenia • Severe form of psychopathology characterized by breaking down of integrated personality functioning withdrawl from reality, emotional distortions and disturbed thought process • Less than 1% • Chronic Schizophrenia • Hallucination – False perceptions that occur in the absence of objective stimuli Schizophrenia • Delusions – False or irrational beliefs maintained despite clear evidence to the contrary Schizophrenia • Language distorted – “word salad” • Acute phase – Active or positive symptoms Schizophrenia • Types – Disorganized • Displays incoherent patters of thinking and grossly bizarre and disorganized behavior Schizophrenia • Catatonic – Disruption in motor activities – Frozen in stupor Schizophrenia • Paranoid – Delusions of persecution • Spied on, plotted against – Delusions of grandeur • Believe that they are important or exalted beings – Delusions of jealousy • Mate is unfaithful Schizophrenia • Undifferentiated – Grab-bag, hodge-podge of symptoms • Residual – Free of major symptoms but had episodes in the past Schizophrenia • Causes – Genetic links- twin studies – Diathesis- stress hypothesis • Genetic factors predispose an individual to a certain disorder but that environmental stress factors must impinge in order for potential risk to manifest itself – Family Structure Mental Illness Stigma • Negative reaction of people to an individual or group because of some assumed inferiority or source of difference that is degraded Therapy and Change • Goals – – – – Diagnosis Etiology (causes) Prognosis Starting treatment Therapies • Biomedical – Alter brain functioning with chemical or physical intervention – Drug therapy, surgery, electroconvulsive therapy Therapies • Psychotherapies – Focus on changing faulty behaviors, thought, perceptions and emotions that may be associated with specific disorders Therapies • Psychodynamic – Inner conflict (unconscious) – “talk therapy” Therapies • Behavioral – Treats external – Changing surroundings – No internal Therapies • Cognitive – Attempts to change way one thinks – Alter the way one views themselves Therapies • Existential/Humanistic – Self actualization, psychological growth, development of more meaningful relationships Therapist • Counseling Psychologist – Provide guidance in areas such as vocational selection, school problems, drug abuse and marital conflict Therapist • Clinical social worker – Considers social context of problems – Collaborates with other professionals – Works in family or work setting Therapist • Pastoral counselor – Religious person who specializes in the treatment of psychological disorders often combining spirituality with practical problem solving Therapist • Clinical psychologist (PHD or PSYD) – Trained in assessment and treatment of psychological problem solving Therapist • Psychiatrist – Prescribes medications for the treatment of psychological disorder Therapist • Psychoanalyst – Specialized post grad training in Freudian approach Attendee • Client – One who is being treated for a psychological disorder not a mental illness – Humanistic approach • Patient – One who is using the biomedical approach History • Phillippe Pinel (1801) – Mentally ill are sick and need treatment not warehousing • Clifford Beers (1900’s) – Mental hygiene movement – Rehabilitation goal • 1960’s – Deinstitutionalize mentally ill – Remove wharehousing Cultural • US/Western – Individualizes – Takes person out and fixes them • Other cultures – Use their own social groups/families Cultural • Shamanism – Spiritual tradition that involves both healing and gaining contact with the spirit world – Mental illness is being powerless • Need to personalize to regain power Cultural • Ritual healing – Ceremonies that infuse special emotional intensity and meaning into the healing process Psychodynamic Approach • Psychoanalysis – Freud – An intensive prolonged technique for exploring the unconscious motivations and conflicts in neurotic, anxiety ridden individuals Psychoanalysis • Id, Ego, Superego issue – Repression understanding – Gain insight(therapy) • Therapist guides a patient toward discovering insights between present symptoms and past organs • Work with long standing unconscious issues Psychoanalysis • Free association – Patient gives a running account of thoughts, wishes, physical sensations and mental issues that occur – Freud would say they were predetermined not random – Significant patters Psychoanalysis • Catharsis – Process of expressing strongly felt but usually repressed emotions Psychoanalysis • Resistance – Inability or unwillingness of a patient in psychoanalysis to discuss certain ideas, desires or experiences Psychoanalysis • Dream analysis – – – – Royal road to the unconscious Manifest (open visible) Latent (hidden) Psychoanalytic interpretation of dreams used to gain insight into a person’s unconscious motives or conflict Psychoanalysis • Transference – Attachment to a therapist feelings formerly held toward some significant person who figured in a past emotional conflict – Positive or negative Psychoanalysis • Counter Transference – Therapist develops personal feelings about a client due to similarities to someone in the therapists life Neo-Freudian Therapies • Placed more emphasis on patient’s current social environment • Continuing influences of life experiences • Role of social motivation, interpersonal relationships • Importance of ego function, development of the self concept Neo-Freudian Therapies • Harry Stack Sullivan (1953) – Stressed social relationships and patient’s needs for acceptance, respect and love – Not only internal but current societal and interpersonal relationship Neo-Freudian Therapies • Melanie Klein (1975) – – – – – Issues with Oedipus conflict (age 4-5) Earlier superego Death instinct greater than sex instinct Love unites and aggression splits the psyche Object relations theory • Building blocks of how people experience the world emerge from their relations to loved and hated objects (people) Neo-Freudian Therapies • Heinz Kohut (1977) – Emphasis on self – Objective relations • How various aspects of the self require self objects, supportive people and significant things everyone needs to maintain optimal personality functioning. Behavioral Therapies • Behavior Modification – Systematic use of principles of learning to increase the frequency of desired behaviors and or decrease the frequency of problem behaviors Behavioral Therapies • Symptom Substitution – Treating external will lead to this according to psychodynamics – New psychological problem Behavioral Therapies • Counterconditioning – Substitute a new response for a maladaptive one by means of conditioning procedures Behavioral Therapies • Systematic desensitization – Client is taught to prevent the arousal they feared, while being taught to relax Behavioral Therapies • Implosion therapy (opposite of system desensitization) – Client exposed to anxiety-provoking stimuli, through their imagination, in an attempt to extinguish the anxiety with the stimuli Behavioral Therapies • Flooding – Therapy for phobias in which clients are exposed, with permission, to the stimuli most frightening to them Behavioral Therapies • Keys to systematic desensitization, implosion, flooding – exposure Behavioral Therapies • Aversion therapy – Therapy to stop people who are attracted to harmful stimuli – Attractive (but bad) stimulus is paired w/ a noxious stimulus in order to elicit a negative reaction to the target stimulus – I.e. shock with smoking Behavioral Therapies • Contingency Management – Skinner – Extinction strategies • Removing unseen reinforcements that cause unwanted behaviors – Changing behavior by modifying its consequences • Positive reinforcement – Rewards given • Shaping • Token economies Social-Learning • Client observes model’s desirable behaviors being reinforced • Albert Bandura (1986) Social-Learning • Participant Modeling – Therapist demonstrates desired behavior and client is aided through supportive encouragement to imitate the modeled behavior Social-Learning • Social Skills – Responsibilities that allow one to achieve their social goals – What to say, how and when Social-Learning • Behavioral Rehearsal – Establish and strengthen basic skills – Rehearse skills with therapist Cognitive Therapies • Attempt to change feelings and behaviors by changing the way a client thinks about or perceives life experiences Cognitive Therapies • Cognitive behavior modification – Role of thoughts and attitudes influencing motivations and responses with the behavioral emphasis on changing performance through modifications of reinforcement contingencies – Unacceptable behaviors changed into positive coping ones – Increase self-efficacy • Belief that one can perform adequately in a particular situation • Also behavioral and cognitive efficiency Cognitive Therapies • Changing false beliefs – Unreasonable attitudes (being perfect) – False premises (do what others want) – Rigid rules (obey, always do the same) Cognitive Therapies • Aaron Beck (1976) – Uses with depression – Depression due to the lack of awareness to negative, automatic thought – How therapy works • • • • Challenge client’s basic assumption about functioning Evaluate evidence for and against these thoughts Reattribute blame to situational factor Discuss alternate solution Cognitive Therapies • Rational Emotive Therapy – Albert Ellis (1962) • Comprehensive system of personality change based on changing irrational beliefs that cause undesirable, highly charged emotional reactions such as severe anxiety • How to recognize the “shoulds, oughts, and musts” • Get rid of system of faulty beliefs Existential-Humanistic Therapies • Freedom to choose leads to a burden of responsibility • Guilt over lost opportunities to achieve full potential Existential-Humanistic Therapies • Human-potential movement (1960’s) – Encompasses all those practices and methods that release the potential of the average human being for greater levels of performance and greater richness of experience Existential-Humanistic Therapies • Client-Centered therapy – Carl Rogers (1951) • Emphasizes the healthy psychological growth of the individual • Based on the assumption that all people share the basic tendency of human nature toward self actualization • Incongruence – Difference between natural positive self image and negative external criticism • Unconditional positive regard – Non judgmental acceptance and respect for client – Geniuses Existential-Humanistic Therapies • Gestalt Therapy – Fritz Perls(1969) • Focuses on ways to unite mind and body to make a whole person • Recreate past/dreams • Empty Chair technique – Sit across from chair, imagine someone in it, then discuss feelings and problems Group Therapies • Advantages – Less threatening for those dealing with their own authority – Helps with individual maladaptive behavior – Helps with interpersonal skills – Helps with corrective expression Group Therapies • Couples counseling – Clarify communication problems and improve quality of interactions Group Therapies • Family therapy • Psychological spaces and interpersonal dynamics of people as a unit • Virginia Satir(1967) – Therapist acts as interpreter and clarifier, influences agent mediator and referee Group Therapies • Community Support Groups – Self help – AA Alcoholics Anonymous • Four main categories – – – – Addictive behaviors Physical and mental disorders Life transitions traumas Biomedical Therapies • Treat brain “hardware” problems • Psychosurgery – General term for surgical procedures performed on the brain tissues to alleviate psychological disorders Psychosurgery • Severing fibers of the corpus callosum to help seizure activity • Sever pathways that mediate limbic system activity Psychosurgery • Prefrontal lobotomy – Severs the nerve fibers connecting the frontal lobes of the brain with the diencephalon especially those fibers of the thalamic and hypothalamic areas – Egas Moniz (1949) • Worked for schizophrenia and anxiety • Left people with inability to plan ahead, childlike actions, indifference about people, emotional flatness and lack of self Biomedical Therapies • Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) – Use of electroconvulsive shocks as an effective treatment for severe depression – Apply weak electric current 75-100 volts 1/10 – 1 second – Can suffer from amnesia Biomedical Therapies • Drug Therapies – Psycho pharmacology • Investigates the effects of drugs on behavior Biomedical Therapies • Antipsychotics – Reduces activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain, increases serotonin – Decreases brain activity • Thorazine, haldol – Side Effects • Tardive dyskinsea – Loss of motor control in face, lips and tongue • Agranulocytosis – Bone marrow stops making white blood cells • Relapse of disease high when off medication Biomedical Therapies • Antidepressant drugs – Increase the activity of neurotransmitters norepinepherine and serotnonin – Tricyclins (Tofranil, Elavil) • Reduce reuptake of neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft – Bicyclins (Prozac) • Reduces reuptake of serotonin – Monoamine Oxidase (NAO) inhibitors • Limits enzyme monoamire oxidase – Lithium • For bipolar Biomedical Therapies • Anti-anxiety drugs – Benzodiazapine (Valium, Xanax) • Increased activity of the neurotransmitter GABA – GABA regulates inhibitory neurons, increase GABA activity decreases brain activity for anxiety Spontaneous-remission effect • Improvement of some mental patients in psychotherapy without any professional intervention • Baseline to see effectiveness of therapist Placebo Effect • Therapy independent of any specific clinical procedures that result in client improvement • Neutral therapy that creates healing Meta-Analysis • Statistic technique for evaluating hypothesis by providing a formal mechanism for detecting the general conclusion found in data from many different experiments • Way to check if therapy is having an effect Treatment Evaluations • Large study by the National Institute of Mental Health (1989) • Double blind procedure – Therapist did not know who got the drug and who got the therapy • Symptom relief – Drugs 55% – Psychodynamic therapy 52% – Combo 85% Prevention • • • • Primary- start work before condition exists Secondary- limit duration in future Tertiary- prevent relapse Paradigm shift – – – – Change treatment to prevention Change medical disease model to mental health model Focus on situations and ecologies that put people at risk Look for precipitating factors in life Social Psychology • Studies the effect of social variables on individual behavior, attitudes, perceptions, and motives • Studies group and inter-group phenomena Social Psychology • Social roles – A socially defined pattern of behavior that is expected of a person who is functioning in a given setting or group – Explicit • I.e. school rules – Implicit • What you learn in situation (I.e. what to call your teacher or boss) Social Psychology • Stanford Prison Experiment – Guards – acted tough/mean even if they were not before • Social Norms – Expectation a group has for its members regarding acceptable and appropriate attitudes and behaviors Social Psychology • Conformity – Tendency for people to adopt the behaviors, attitudes and values of other members of a reference group • Informational Influences – Wanting to be correct and to understand the right way to act in a given situation – look to others to show you the way Stanford Prison • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1KXy8C Lqgk4 Social Psychology • Autokinetic effect – Stationary light that looks like it moves • Groups agreed which way it moves • Salmon Asch 1956 • • • • Asch effect Visual activity w/ lines People involved had to match lines People matched wrong lines on purpose – 25% - held true – 50-80% - conformed to false Asch • http://youtube.com/watch?v=DKivdMAgde A Social Psychology • Group polarization – Tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the decisions that would be made by the members acting alone • Groupthink – Tendency of a decision-making group to filter out undesirable input so that a consensus may be reached , especially if it is in line with the leader’s viewpoint Social Psychology • Constructing social reality – Knowledge people bring into situations that represents how you see the situation • Social perception – Process by which a person comes to know or perceive the personal attributes of himself or herself and other people Social Psychology • Attribute theory – Social cognitive approach to describing the ways the social perceiver uses information to generate causal explanation – Answer the “whys” – Fritz Heider (1958) • Found in the person (dispositional causality) • Found in situation (situational causality) Social Psychology – Harold Kelly (1967) • Uncertainty • Covariation principle – People attribute a behavior to a causal factor if that factor was present whenever it did not occur – Distinctiveness – Consistency – Consensus – others behaviors Social Psychology • Fundamental attribute error (FAE) – Dual tendency of observers to underestimate the impact of situational factors and to overestimate the influence of dispositional factors on a person’s behavior (blame/credit people) – People blame themselves Social Psychology • Self serving biases – People tend to take credit for their successes and deny responsibility for their failures • Self-fulfilling prophecies – Prediction made about some future behavior or event that modifies interactions so as to produce what is expected. – Merton (1957) – Study with 9 month olds; ½ think boy and ½ think girl Social Psychology • Behavioral confirmation – Mark Snyder (1984) • Process by which people behave in ways that elicit others specific expected reactions and then use those reactions to confirm their beliefs • Attitude • Learned, relatively stable tendency to respond to people, concepts and events in an evaluative way • Positive /negative • Based or cognitive, affective & behavioral • Accessibility – Property of an attitude that predicts behavior – More accessible when based on direct experience • Specificity – better predictor of behavior if more specific Social Psychology • Persuasion – Deliberate efforts to change attitudes – Elaboration likelihood model • How likely it is that people will focus their cognitive processes to elaborate upon a message & therefore follow the central & peripheral routes to persuasion – Personal relevance – more likely to look at carefully – Type of attitude and argument • Emotion vs. cognitive based Social Psychology • Cognitive dissonance – Leon Festinger (1957) – The tension producing effects of incongruous cognition motivate individuals to reduce such tension – I.e. lies – less paid students believed their own lie to be true Social Psychology • Self perception theory – Daryl Bem (1972) – Idea that people observe themselves in order to figure out the reasons they act as they do – People infer what their internal states are by perceiving how they are acting in a given situation Social Psychology • Compliance – Change in behavior consistent w/ a communication source’s direct request – Reciprocity norm • Expectation that favors will be returned – if someone does something for another person that person should do something in return • Door-in-the-face technique – Ask big to get small – Once foot in the door, small commitment can move up a larger one Social Psychology • Social relationships – Proximity – near – Exposure – more you see – Physical attractiveness • Stereotype better looking = smarter • Beauty matters more than intelligence – Similarities • Beliefs, attitudes & values – Reciprocity • Like people that you believe like you Social Psychology • Love – – – – Passion – sexual passion and desire Intimacy – honesty & understanding Commitment – devotion & sacrifice Difference between being “in love” and loving someone Social Psychology • Adult attachment styles – Secure • Easy to get close to others • Depend on others • No worry about abandonment – Avoidant • Somewhat uncomfortable about being close • Difficulty trusting & depending – Anxious-ambivalent • • • • Others will not get as close as I want them to get Worry partner doesn’t really love them Want to be close but scare people away More jealousy Social Psychology • Compassionate love – Start of relationship – Great intensity • Companionate love – Greater intimacy • Factors that allow relationship to last – “other” is included in their “self” – Dependence model • Degree to which needs are important (sex, intimacy,emotional & intellectual) • Degree to which above needs are met & of satisfaction by others • Are there others to meet these needs Prosocial Behavior • Behaviors that are carried out with the goal of helping other people. Altruism • Prosocial behaviors a person carries out with out consideration for his or her own safety • Strong with genetic overlap (family) Reciprocal Altruism • People perform altruistic behaviors because they expect others to perform them. Motives for Prosocial Behavior • • • • Daniel Batson (1994) Altruism Egoism- one’s own self interest Principilism- for moral principles Situational Forces • Bibb Latane and John Darley (1970) • Bystander intervention – Willingness to assist a person in need of help – More people present, the less likely one is to act Situational Forces • Diffusion of Responsibility – In emergency situations the larger the number of bystanders the less responsibility any one bystander has. Situational Forces • Time and Help – More free time the more help – I.e.. If late usually did not help Aggression • Behaviors that cause psychological or physical harm to another individual • Karl Lorenz (1966) – Humans could not kill each other until the artificial i.e.. (gun/bomb) Differences in Aggression • Genetic/social – Twin studies link genetics – Adoption studies link social • Brain Chemistry – Inappropriate levels of activity in the amgydala lead to aggressive behaviors – Levels of serotonin – Muted stress response due to levels of hormone corisol Impulsive Aggression • Emotion-driven aggression produced in reaction to situations in the “Heat of the Moment” Instrumental Aggression • Cognitive-based and goal directed aggression carried out with premeditated thought, to achieve specific aims Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis • Frustration occurs in situations in which people are prevented or blocked from attaining a goal • Rise in frustration leads to a greater probability of aggression Temperature and Aggression • Warmer the temperature, more the aggressive behavior Direct Provocation • When someone upsets you it leads to aggression – Escalation • Increased intensity leads to aggression Cultural Constraints with Aggression • 7-10 times more likely to be murdered in US than in Europe • Individual culture vs. group culture • Dependent vs. interdependent constraints Prejudice • Learned attitude toward a target or object • Involving negative effect (dislike/fear) • Involving negative beliefs(stereotypes) that justify the attitude and a behavior intention to avoid, control, dominate or eliminate the target object. Prejudice • Social Categorization – Process by which people organize the social environment by categorizing themselves and others into groups • In-groups- people you identify with • Out-groups- people you do not identify with • In-group bias – Your group is better than other groups Prejudice • Racism – Discrimination based on skin color or ethnic heritage Prejudice • Sexism – Discrimination against people because of their sex Prejudice • Stereotypes – Generalizations about a group in which the same characteristics are assigned to all members of a group – Expectations – Stereotype threat • Key aspect of stereotyping are present Reversing Prejudice • Direct contact between hostile groups alone reduces prejudice • Jigsaw Classrooms – Each pupil is given part of the total material to master and then they share with other group members • Building Friendships Obedience to Authority • Stanley Milgram (1965,1974), Milgram Experiment – In reaction to Nazi Germany – Series of what people were to think, were painful electric shocks – People thought it was a study on memory and learning – On each error, participant was to shock when a wrong answer was given – White coat authority figure present to make sure the teacher did their job – Started at 15 volts, went up to 450 volt Milgram Experiment • Each shock caused pain • The learner was a man about 50, with a bad heart condition, strapped to an “electric chair” • He was in another room with an intercom for communication • The protest levels of the shocking rose with each power increase in shocking • 75 volts were grunts, 150 volts demanded release, 180 volts cried out, 300 volts yelled about his heart. Milgram Experiment • The white coat would say, “The experiment requires that you continue, you have no choice, you must go on” if the teacher wanted to stop • Eventually with shocking reaching 450 volts there was no response • Results – No one quit before 300 volts – 65% made it to 450 volts Milgram Experiment • Demand Characteristics – in an experimental setting that influence the participants’ perception of what is expected of them and that systematically influences their behavior within a setting. Milgram • http://youtube.com/watch?v=y6GxIuljT3w Why do people follow authority? • Normative influence – People want to be liked and fit in • Informational influences – People want to be right – Ingrained habit with children Genocide and War • Systematic destruction of one group of people, often ethnic or racial, by another • Starting point usually has severe life conditions • Heighten in-group, out-group becomes scapegoat • Easy for group mentality to harm out-group • Violence justifies self, to stop would be admitting wrong • Dehumanization Peace Psychology • Interdisciplinary approach to the prevention of nuclear war and the maintenance of peace. Group Dynamics • Kurt Lewin (1939) – The study of how group processes change individual functioning – Autocratic • People work when boss is around • More hostility – Laissez-faire • Least work, poor quality – Democratically run • Worked most steadily and efficiently
