Download Document

Chapter 6
Foundation Concepts
of Motivation
PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter and doing the
exercises, you should be able to:
1. Describe several need theories of motivation, including
the needs hierarchy, the two-factor theory, and the
achievement–power–affiliation triad.
2. Summarize the key propositions of goal theory and
reinforcement theory.
3. Explain the expectancy theory of motivation.
4. Explain how equity and social comparison contribute to
motivation.
5. Use social learning theory to motivate yourself.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–2
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter and doing the
exercises, you should be able to:
6. Recognize the importance of both intrinsic and extrinsic
motivators.
7. Explain how personality factors are related to motivation.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–3
Motivation
• Motivation defined
 The process by which behavior is mobilized and
sustained in a work setting in the interest of achieving
organizational goals.
 The expenditure of effort toward achieving a goal
because it satisfies an important need.
• Theories of motivation
 Content (Needs) theories
 Process theories
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–4
Need Theories of Motivation
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Lower order needs must be satisfied before higher
level needs are activated.
 Deficiency (lower order) needs
– Physiological: water, air, food, sleep
– Safety: security, freedom from environmental threat
 Growth
(higher order) needs
– Social: group affiliation, physical love
– Esteem: self-respect and respect from others
– Self-actualization: self-fulfillment and personal
development leading to one’s full potential
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–5
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
SelfActualization
Esteem
Social and Love
Safety
Physiological
EXHIBIT 6-1
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–6
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
• Motivators (intrinsic satisfiers)
 Motivate and satisfy workers in the job context
 Are associated with higher order needs
– Achievement, recognition, advancement, responsibility,
work itself, and personal growth possibilities
• Hygiene factors (extrinsic dissatisfiers)
 Only prevent dissatisfaction with job content
 Are associated with lower order needs
– Pay, job status, job security,working conditions, and quality
of leadership
 Create
dissatisfaction if absent in the workplace
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–7
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (cont’d)
• Evaluation (Positives)
 Contributed to understanding that money is not
always the primary motivator.
 Spurred interest in designing intrinsically satisfying
jobs.
• Evaluation (Negatives)
 De-emphasis of individual differences.
 Overlooks the importance of hygiene factors (e.g.,
benefits) in attracting and retaining workers.
 Does not account for workers uninterested in growth
and advancement.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–8
Examples of Motivator and Hygiene Factors
Motivator Factors
(Sources of Job Satisfaction
and Motivation)
Hygiene Factors
(Sources of Job Dissatisfaction;
Neutral to Motivation)
Challenge of the work itself
Responsibility
Recognition
Achievement
Job advancement and
professional growth
Physical working conditions
Company policies
Quality of supervision
Coworker relationships
Salary
Status
Job security
Benefits, including work habits
and time management
EXHIBIT 6-2
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–9
McClelland’s Achievement-PowerAffiliation Triad
• A theory of motivation based on the premise that
people acquire or learn certain needs from their
culture.
 Cultural influences
 Family
 Peer groups
 Popular media (e.g., television shows)
• When the need becomes strong enough, a
person will work to satisfy it.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–10
Goal-Setting Theory
• A theory of motivation that focuses on improving
and sustaining job performance through the
establishment of goals that regulate behavior.
• Core findings on goal-setting
 Task performance is better on specific hard goals
than when goals are easy and non-specific, “do your
best or, where there are no goals.
 Goal attainment requires capable individuals who
accept the goals, and receive task-related feedback.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–11
Goal-Setting Theory
EXHIBIT 6-3
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–12
Goal Setting and Task Performance
Locke and Latham’s findings:
1. Specific goals lead to higher performance than do generalized
goals.
2. Performance generally increases in direct proportion to goal
difficulty.
3. For goals to improve performance, workers must accept them
4. Goals are more effective when they are used to evaluate
performance.
5. Goals should be linked to feedback and rewards.
6. A learning goal orientation improves performance more than a
performance goal orientation.
7. Group goal setting is as important as individual goal setting.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–13
Reinforcement Theory
• Behavior is determined by its consequences
(rewards and punishments for specific
behaviors).
• Operant conditioning
 Is learning that takes place as a consequence of
behavior.
 Behavior that has positive consequences is repeated;
behavior that has negative consequences is avoided.
 Managers can create contingencies that employ
rewards to encourage desirable behaviors and use
punishments to discourage undesirable behaviors.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–14
Operant Conditioning Strategies
• Positive reinforcement
 Providing a pleasurable
or valued consequence
(reward) for the desired
response.
• Negative reinforcement
(avoidance motivation)
 Encouraging a behavior
by removing a
uncomfortable
consequence when the
behavior stops.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
• Extinction
 Weakening or reducing
the frequency of a
behavior by removing the
reward for a behavior.
• Punishment
 Applying an undesirable
consequence to a specific
behavior.
6–15
Operant Conditioning Examples
• Positive reinforcement
 Providing a bonus for meeting a sales quota
• Negative reinforcement (avoidance motivation)
 Returning a poorly performing employee to the merit
and promotion list after a period of improvement.
• Extinction
 Refusing to listen to an employee’s off-color jokes.
• Punishment
 Suspending an employee for improper internet usage.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–16
Expectancy Theory
• Motivation results from deliberate choices to
engage in activities in order to achieve
worthwhile outcomes.
 People will be motivated if they
believe effort will lead to good
performance and that good
performance leads, in turn,
to preferred outcomes.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–17
Key Components of Expectancy Theory
• Effort-to-Performance (EP) Expectancy
 A subjective estimate of the probability that a
increased effort will lead to the desired performance.
 Self-efficacy affects motivation to put forth effort.
• Instrumentality (PO)
 An individual’s estimate of the probability that a
increased performance will lead to desired outcomes.
• Valence
 The value a person places on a particular outcome.
 Desirable outcomes have positive valences; less
desirable outcomes have negative valences.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–18
A Basic Version of Expectancy Theory
Motivational
Force
=
Expectancy
Instrumentality
Valence
(how well the
(how well the
(the value that
person believes
he or she can
X
person believes
that performance
perform the
will lead to
task)
certain outcomes)
X
the person
attaches to the
outcome)
EXHIBIT 6-4
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–19
Key Component Examples
• Effort-to-Performance (EP) Expectancy
 “Am I capable of the effort required to reach
that level of performance?”
• Instrumentality (PO)
 “Is a particular level of performance
truly tied to a specific reward?”
• Valence
 “How much do I want any of the
rewards that the organization is offering?”
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–20
The Calculation of Motivation
Motivational force is high when its components
(expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences)
are high.
Example (from textbook):
Valence =
100 (scale: -100 to +100)
EP = x .85 (scale: 0 to 1.00)
PO = x .90 (scale: 0 to 1.00)
Motivation = 76.50 (scale: -100 to +100)
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–21
Enhancing Motivation
• Managers can:
 Provide training to raise skill levels that increase the
performance capabilities of employees (EP).
 Provide assurance to employees that good
performance is will lead to a reward system (PO) .
 Provide rewards that are meaningful and valued by
the employees; that rewards have positive valences
for the employees.
 Being aware that rewards not run counter to crosscultural factors where singling out individual
performers for rewards is culturally insensitive.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–22
Equity Theory and Social Comparison
• Equity theory
 Employee satisfaction and motivation depend on how
fairly employees believe they are treated in
comparison to their peers.
 Employees
compare their outcomes (rewards) from
the organization and the level of their efforts
(inputs) to those of others (reference sources).
 Employees feel equity when they believe that their
outcome/input ratio is equal to that of others.
Outcomes of Individual compared to Outcomes of Others
Inputs of Individual
Inputs of Others
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–23
Employee Responses to Inequity
• Alter the outcome (ask for more money).
• Alter the inputs (decrease efforts).
• Distort the perception (engage in selfjustification and seek to discredit others).
• Change the reference source (find another
person with a similar outcome/input ratio).
• Leave the situation (quit to pursue a more
equitable position).
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–24
Social Learning Theory
• The process of observing the behavior of others,
recognizing its consequences, and altering
behavior as a result. Social learning requires:
 High expectancies that observed behavior can learned
and it will result in valued rewards.
 Rewards that can be self-administered (drawing
intrinsic satisfaction from the behavior itself)
 The behavior to be learned is tangible and observable.
 Possession of the physical and mental ability to imitate
the behavior.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–25
Intrinsic Motivation
• Intrinsic motivation
 Is the belief that an activity (work) can satisfy
needs for competence and self-determination.
 Is affected (increased or reduced) by
 personal values and perceptions.
 the characteristics of the task.
 the reason for doing the task.
 rewards that become externalized.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–26
Extrinsic Motivation
• Extrinsic rewards:
 Limited value can lower employee performance.
 May cause employees to focus narrowly only a task
that is rewarded.
 May cause a rush through a job to get a reward.
 May cause a task to be regarded as drudgery that
must be suffered through to receive a reward.
 May cause employees to feel less free and less selfdetermining.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–27
The Influence of Personality on Motivation
• Personality traits that predispose persons to
motivation:
 Conscientiousness
 A conscientious person will strive to get the job
done.
 Achievement need
 A need that usually functions like a personality
trait—the achievement-driven person welcomes
accomplishing tasks.
 Employees with low conscientiousness scores, and
weak achievement needs are difficult to motivate.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–28
Measuring Motivation
• Communion striving
 Actions directed toward being accepted in personal
relationships and getting along with coworkers.
• Status striving
 Actions directed toward obtaining power and
dominance within a status hierarchy, such as a
business firm.
• Accomplishment striving
 Reflects an individual’s intention to accomplish tasks,
as included in most definitions of work motivation.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
6–29