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Slide 1 A Topical Approach to LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 1 Introduction John W. Santrock © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 2 Introduction • The Life-Span Perspective • The Nature of Development • Theories of Development • Research in Life-Span Development © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 3 The Life-Span Perspective The Life-Span Perspective • Development — pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through life span © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 4 The Life-Span Perspective The Importance of Studying Life-Span Development • Personal insight • Explore growth and decline • Experiences influence development © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 5 The Life-Span Perspective Views of Child Development Original sin view Children are born into a world corrupted with inclination toward evil Tabla rasa view Children born as “blank slates” and acquire characteristics through experience (Locke) Innate goodness view Children born inherently good (Rousseau) © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 6 The Life-Span Perspective Adult Development – Life expectancy — average number of years a person is expected to live when born in a particular year – Developmental change occurs during adulthood as well as childhood © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 7 The Life-Span Perspective The Aging of America Fig. 1.2 © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 8 The Life-Span Perspective Family Policy • Social policy — laws, regulations, and government programs that influence citizens’ welfare – U.S. family policies overwhelmingly treatment oriented © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 9 The Life-Span Perspective Characteristics of the Life-Span Perspective – Lifelong – Multidimensional – Multidirectional – Plastic – Contextual – Multidisciplinary – Individualistic • Growth • Maintenance • Regulation © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 10 The Life-Span Perspective Development is Contextual Normative agegraded influences Biological and environmental influences are similar for individuals in a particular age group Normative history- Biological and environmental graded influences influences are associated with history Non-normative life Unusual occurrences that have a major impact on a events specific person’s life © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 11 The Nature of Development Processes in Development Fig. 1.4 © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 12 The Nature of Development Percentage of Poor and Middle-Income Children Exposed to Each of Six Stressors Fig. 1.3 © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 13 The Nature of Development Periods of Development • Prenatal Period • Adolescence • • Infancy • Early adulthood • Early childhood • Middle adulthood • Middle and late childhood • Late adulthood © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 14 The Nature of Development Periods of Development • Each period of the life span has its own stresses, ups and downs, and concerns. • Older adults have different views than children or adolescents. • How does satisfaction in life relate to age? © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 15 The Nature of Development Age and Happiness Fig. 1.6 © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 16 The Nature of Development Conceptions of Age • Chronological age — number of years elapsed since person’s birth • Biological age — age in terms of biological health • Psychological age — individual’s adaptive capacities • Social age — social roles and expectations related to person’s age © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 17 The Nature of Development Developmental Issues Extent to which development Nature and Nurture is influenced by nature and by nurture Stability and Change Degree to which early traits and characteristics persist through life or change ContinuityDiscontinuity Extent development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity) © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 18 The Nature of Development Continuity and Discontinuity in Development Fig. 1.8 © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 19 Theories of Development Theories of Development • Theory — interrelated set of ideas that helps to explain data, make predictions • Hypotheses — assertions or predictions, often derived from theories that can be tested © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 20 Theories of Development Theories of Development • Scientific method: – Conceptualize a problem to be studied – Collect research information/data – Analyze data – Draw conclusions © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 21 Theories of Development Psychoanalytic Theories • Development depends primarily on the unconscious mind – Heavily couched in emotion – Behavior is a surface characteristic – Important to analyze symbolic meanings of behavior – Early experiences important in development © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 22 Theories of Development Freud’s Psychosexual Theory • Id, ego, and superego create personality • Repression • Anxiety and defense mechanisms • Five stages of psychosexual development © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 23 Theories of Development Freudian Stages Fig. 1.9 © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 24 Theories of Development Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory • Eight stages of development – Unique development task confronts individuals with crisis that must be resolved – Positive resolution builds foundation for healthy development © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 25 Theories of Development Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Fig. 1.10 © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 26 Theories of Development Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Theories • Contributions include – Emphasis on early experiences, family relationships, and the unconscious mind • Criticisms include – Difficulty in testing, negativity, cultural and gender bias, sexual underpinnings © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 27 Theories of Development Cognitive Theories • Children actively construct understanding • Piaget’s cognitive development theory • Four stages of development — age-related • Based on logical thinking and skills • Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory • Children actively construct their knowledge • Emphasizes culture and social interactions © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 28 Theories of Development Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development Fig. 1.11 © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 29 Theories of Development Information-Processing Approach • Brain is compared to computer’s hardware • Cognition is viewed as computer software • Individuals acquire increasingly complex information • Thinking: perceive, encode, represent, store, and retrieve information © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 30 Theories of Development Information-Processing Theory culture literature science INPUT history OUTPUT religion math © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 31 Theories of Development Evaluating Cognitive Theories • Contributions include – Active construction of understanding, importance of developmental changes, detailed descriptions • Criticisms include – Lack of individual variation, information processing approach lacks clarity, and emphasis on unconscious processes © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 32 Theories of Development Behavioral Theories • Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning – Neutral stimulus paired with active stimulus to produce response • Watson’s Conditioning of ‘little Albert’ – Involuntary responses are learned • Skinner’s Operant Conditioning – Consequences, rewards and punishment, shape behavior © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 33 Theories of Development Social Cognitive Theories • Bandura – Emphasizes observational learning – Focus on reciprocal interactions among behavior, cognition, and environment (any one can influence the others) © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 34 Theories of Development Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model Fig. 1.12 © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 35 Theories of Development Evaluating the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories • Contributions include – Emphasis on scientific research, person and cognitive factors, environmental determinants, and observational learning • Criticisms include – Lack of focus on cognition, too little attention to developmental changes, and overemphasis on environmental determinants © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 36 Theories of Development Ethological Theory • Behavior is – Strongly influenced by biology – Tied to evolution – Characterized by critical or sensitive periods – Emphasized in environmental contexts • Bowlby’s Attachment Theory © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 37 Theories of Development Evaluating Ethological Theory • Contributions include – Emphasis on biology and evolution, sensitive periods of development, and careful observations • Criticisms include – Emphasis on biological foundations, inadequate attention to cognition, emphasis on animal behavior © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 38 Theories of Development Ecological Theory • Bronfenbrenner’s view that development influenced by five environmental systems – Microsystem – Mesosystem – Exosystem – Macrosystem – Chronosystem © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 39 Theories of Development Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory Fig. 1.13 © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 40 Theories of Development Sociocultural Contexts • Key dimensions include – Cross-cultural studies — comparisons of one culture with one or more other cultures – Ethnicity — range of characteristics rooted in cultural heritage – Gender — psychological and sociocultural dimension of being female or male © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 41 Theories of Development Evaluating Ecological Theory • Contributions include – Emphasis on macro and micro dimensions and socio-historical influences • Criticisms include – Lacks emphasis on biological foundations and inadequate attention to cognitive processes © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 42 Theories of Development Family Contexts • Children in non-poor environments were more likely than those in poor homes to – Get responses to their speech – Have toys or interesting activities – Have more books of their own – See their father daily © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 43 Theories of Development Parents’ explanations of science to sons and daughters at a science museum Fig. 1.16 © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 44 Research in Life-Span Development Methods for Collecting Data • Standardized tests • Advantages and disadvantages • Cross-cultural concerns • Physiological measures – MRIs and blood tests • Case study • Life-history record © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 45 Research in Life-Span Development Research Designs • Descriptive research • Correlational research – Correlation coefficient and range – Correlation does not equal causation • Experimental research – Independent and dependent variables – Experimental and control groups © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 46 Research in Life-Span Development Possible Explanations for Correlational Data Fig. 1.17 © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 47 Research in Life-Span Development Time Span of Research • Cross-Sectional Approach — individuals of different ages are compared at one time • Longitudinal Approach — same individuals studied over period of time • Sequential Approach — combined cross-sectional, longitudinal design • Cohorts and their effects © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 48 Research in Life-Span Development Principles of Experimental Research Fig. 1.18 © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 49 Research in Life-Span Development Research Ethics • Informed consent • Confidentiality • Debriefing • Deception • Cultural and ethnic bias – ‘Ethnic gloss’ and over-generalizing © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 50 1 The End © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.