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1
Chapter 6: Sexuality
Outline
•
•
Exploring Adolescent Sexuality
– A Normal Aspect of Adolescent Development
– The Sexual Culture
– Developing a Sexual Identity
– Obtaining Research Information about Adolescent
Sexuality
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
– Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior
– Sexual Minority Attitudes and Behavior
– Self-Stimulation
– Contraceptive Use
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2
Chapter 6: Sexuality
Outline
(Continued from previous slide)
• Adolescent Sexual Problems
– Adolescent Pregnancy
– Sexually Transmitted Infections
– Forcible Sexual Behavior and Sexual Harassment
• Sexual Literacy and Sex Education
–
–
–
–
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Sexual Literacy
Sources of Sex Information
Cognitive Factors
Sex Education in Schools
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3
Preview
During adolescence and emerging
adulthood, the lives of adolescents
are wrapped in sexuality.
Adolescence and emerging adulthood
are time frames when individuals
engage in sexual exploration and
incorporate sexuality into their identity.
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4
Exploring Adolescent Sexuality
•
A Normal Aspect of Adolescent Development
– Sexuality is a normal part of adolescence.
(Diamond, & Savin-Williams, 2009).
– The Sexual Culture
• A special concern is the way sex is portrayed in the media.
– Developing a Sexual Identity
• Mastering emerging sexual feelings and forming a sense
of sexual identity is multifaceted (Diamond, & SavinWilliams, 2009).
– Obtaining Information about Adolescent Sexuality
• Assessing sexual attitudes and behavior is not always a
straightforward matter.
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5
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
• Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior
– Sequence and Change
• In what sequence do adolescents engage in various
sexual behaviors?
– In one study, 452 18- to 25-year-olds were asked about their
own past sexual experiences (Feldman, Turner, & Araujo, 1999).
– The following progression of sexual behaviors occurred:
• Kissing
• Petting
• Sexual intercourse
• Oral sex
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6
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
• Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior (Continued)
– Sequence and Change
• Adolescents are increasingly engaging in oral sex earlier
in the progression (National Center for Health Statistics, 2002).
• The current profile of sexual activity of adolescents as
reported in a recent U.S. national survey:
– 63% of 12th graders reported they had experienced sexual
intercourse (64% of males, 62% of females) compared with
34% of 9th graders (39% of males, 29% of females) (MMWR,
2006).
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7
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
Timing of Sexual Intercourse in U.S. Adolescents
Fig. 6.1
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Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
• Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior (Continued)
– Sequence and Change
• Adolescent males are more likely than adolescent females
to say that they have had sexual intercourse and are
sexually active (MMWR, 2006).
• Adolescent males are more likely than their female
counterparts to describe sexual intercourse as an
enjoyable experience.
• Sexual initiation varies by ethnic group in the U.S. (Santelli,
Abraido-Lanza, & Melnikas, 2009).
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9
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
Sexual Timetables of White, African American, Latino, and
Asian American Adolescents
Fig. 6.2
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Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
(Continued from previous slide)
• Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior
– Oral Sex
• Recent research indicates that oral sex is now a
common occurrence in U.S. adolescents
(Bersamin & Walker, 2006; Brewster, Harker Tillman, 2008).
• For many adolescents oral sex is a recreational
activity practiced outside an intimate, caring
relationship (Walsh & Bennett, 2004).
• One reason for the increase in oral sex during
adolescence is the belief that oral sex is not
really sex.
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11
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
Percentage of U.S. 15- to 19- Year-Old Boys and Girls Who Reported
Engaging in Oral Sex
Fig. 6.3
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Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
(Continued from previous slide)
• Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior
– Cross-Cultural Comparisons
• The timing of teenage sexual initiation varies widely by
culture and gender in most instances linked to the
culture’s values and customs.
– Sexual Scripts
• Are a stereotyped pattern of role prescriptions for how
individuals should behave sexually.
• Females and males have been socialized to follow
different sexual scripts.
• The majority of adolescent sexual experiences involve the
male’s making sexual advances, and it is up to the female
to set the limits on the male’s sexual overtures (Goodchilds
& Zellman, 1984).
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Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
(Continued from previous slide)
•
Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior
– Risk Factors, Youth Assets, and Sexual Problems
• Many adolescents are not emotionally prepared to handle
sexual experiences, especially in early adolescence.
• Early sexual activity is linked with risky behaviors such as
drug use, delinquency, and school-related problems
(Dryfoos & Barkin, 2006).
• Risk factors for sexual problems in adolescence include
contextual factors such as socioeconomic status (SES),
as well as family/parenting, peer, and academic factors
(Charles & Blum, 2008; Dupere & others, 2008).
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Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
(Continued from previous slide)
•
Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior
– Risk Factors, Youth Assets, and Sexual Problems
• Having older sexually active siblings or
pregnant/parenting teenage sisters places adolescents at
an elevated risk of adolescent pregnancy (Miller, Benson, &
Galbraith, 2001).
• Not feeling close to their parents, having low self-esteem,
and watching TV extensively were linked to adolescents
being sexually active at 15 years of age (Hyde & Price,
2007).
• Cognitive factors are implicated in sexual risk taking in
adolescence (Fantasia, 2008).
– Attention problems
– Self-regulation
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15
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
• Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior
– Further Exploration of Heterosexual Attitudes and
Behavior in Emerging Adults
 At the beginning of emerging adulthood (age 18), surveys
indicate that just more than half of individuals have
experienced sexual intercourse.
 By the end of emerging adulthood (age 25) most
individuals have had sexual intercourse (Lefkowitz & Gillen,
2006).
 The average age of marriage in the United States is
currently 27 for males and 26 for females (Popenoe &
Whitehead, 2006).
 Emerging adulthood is a time frame during which most
individuals are “both sexually active and unmarried.”
(Lefkowitz & Gillen, 2006, p. 235).
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16
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
(Continued from previous slide)
•
Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior
– Further Exploration of Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior
in Emerging Adults
• Males have more casual sexual partners and females
report being more selective about their choice of a sexual
partner.
• Approximately 60% of emerging adults have had sexual
intercourse with only 1 individual in the past year, but
compared to young adults in their late 20s and 30s,
emerging adults are more likely to have had sexual
intercourse with 2 or more individuals.
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17
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
(Continued from previous slide)
•
Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior
– Further Exploration of Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior
in Emerging Adults
• Although emerging adults have sexual intercourse with
more individuals than young adults, they have sex less
frequently. Approximately 25 percent of emerging adults
report having sexual intercourse only a couple of times
a year or not at all (Michael & others, 1994).
• Casual sex is more common in emerging adulthood than
in young adulthood. One study indicated that 30 percent
of emerging adults said they had “hooked up” with
someone and had sexual intercourse during college (Paul,
McManus, & Hayes, 2000).
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18
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
(Continued from previous slide)
•
Sexual Minority Attitudes and Behavior
– The majority of sexual minority (same-sex) individuals
experience their first same-sex attraction, sexual behavior,
and self-labeling as a gay male or lesbian during adolescence
(Diamond & Savin-Williams, 2009; Savin-Williams, 2006).
– While most gay males and lesbians have their first same-sex
experience in adolescence, they often have their first
extended same-sex relationship in emerging adulthood.
– The term bisexual refers to someone who is attracted to
people of both sexes.
– Researchers have gravitated toward more descriptive and
limited terms than “homosexual,” preferring such terms as
“individuals with same-sex attractions,” or individuals who
have engaged in same-sex behavior .”
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19
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
(Continued from previous slide)
• Factors Associated with Sexual Minority
Behavior
– Although research suggests there may be a
genetic contribution to sexual attraction in some
individuals, we are far from understanding the
mechanisms involved.
– Most experts believe that no one factor alone
causes same-sex attraction and that the relative
weight of each factor may vary from one individual
to the next.
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20
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
(Continued from previous slide)
• Factors Associated with Sexual Minority
Behavior
– An individual’s sexual attraction is most likely
determined by a combination of genetic, hormonal,
cognitive, and environmental factors (Mustanski,
Chivers, & Bailey, 2003).
– There also is no evidence to support the oncepopular theories that being a gay male is caused
by a dominant mother or a weak father, or that
being a lesbian is caused by girls’ choosing male
role models.
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21
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
(Continued from previous slide)
• Developmental Pathways
– Sexual minority youth have diverse patterns of
initial attraction, often have bisexual attractions,
and may have physical or emotional attraction to
same-sex individuals but do not always fall in love
with them (Diamond, & Savin-Williams, 2009).
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22
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
(Continued from previous slide)
• Gay Male or Lesbian Identity and Disclosure
– Mothers are more likely than fathers to know about
their adolescent’s (son’s or daughter’s) same-sex
attractions.
– Approximately 50 to 60 percent of lesbian, gay, and
bisexual adolescents have disclosed to at least
one sibling, but siblings are still seldom the first
person to whom a sexual minority youth discloses.
– The first person to whom adolescents may
disclose their sexual minority identity is likely to be
a friend.
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23
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
(Continued from previous slide)
• Gay Male or Lesbian Identity and Disclosure
– Establishing a gay male or lesbian identity is often
referred to as the coming-out process. (Rosario &
others, 2006).
– Parents are seldom the first person an adolescent
tells about his or her same-sex attractions.
– Mothers are usually told before fathers, possibly
because adolescents have more distant
relationships with fathers.
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24
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
(Continued from previous slide)
• Discrimination and Bias
– Having irrational negative feelings against
individuals who have same-sex attractions is
called homophobia.
– In its more extreme forms, homophobia can lead
individuals to ridicule, physically assault, or even
murder people they believe to have same-sex
attractions.
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25
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
(Continued from previous slide)
• Discrimination and Bias
– Homophobia is associated with avoidance of
same-sex individuals, faulty beliefs about sexual
minority lifestyles (such as believing the falsehood
that most child molesters have same-sex
attractions), and subtle or overt discrimination in
housing, employment, and other areas of life
(Meyer, 2003).
– One common form of self-devaluation is called
passing, the process of hiding one’s real social
identity.
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26
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
(Continued from previous slide)
• Self-Stimulation
– Most boys have an ejaculation for the first time at
about 12 to 13 years of age.
– Masturbation, genital contact with a same-sex or
other-sex partner, or a wet dream during sleep are
common circumstances for ejaculation.
– Masturbation is the most frequent sexual outlet for
many adolescents (Gates & Sonnenstein, 2000).
– Today, as few as 15 percent of adolescents attach
any stigma to masturbation (Hyde & DeLamater,
2008).
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27
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
• Contraceptive Use
(Continued from previous slide)
– Youth encounter two kinds of risks: unintended
pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections
(Frost, Darroch, & Remez, 2008; Kelly, 2008).
– Both risks can be reduced significantly by using
certain forms of contraception and barriers.
– Adolescents are increasing their use of
contraceptives but large numbers still do not use
them (Parkes & others, 2009; Sterling & Sadler, 2009).
– Sexually active younger adolescents are less likely
than older adolescents to take contraceptive
precautions.
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28
Adolescent Sexual Problems
Sexual problems in adolescence
include:
–Adolescent pregnancy
–Sexually transmitted infections
–Forcible sexual behavior
–Sexual harassment
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29
Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
• Adolescent Pregnancy
– Pregnant adolescents were once virtually
invisible and unmentionable, shuttled off to
homes for unwed mothers where relinquishment
of the baby for adoption was their only option,
or subjected to unsafe and illegal abortions. But
yesterday’s secret has become today’s dilemma.
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30
Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
• Incidence of Adolescent Pregnancy
• Adolescent girls who become pregnant are from
different ethnic groups and from different
places, but their circumstances have the same
stressfulness.
• More than 200,000 females in the United States
have a child before their eighteenth birthday.
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31
Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
• Cross-Cultural Comparisons
• The United States continued to have one of the
highest rates of adolescent pregnancy and
childbearing in the developed world, despite a
considerable decline in the 1990s.
• U.S. adolescent pregnancy rates are similar to
those of Russia and several Eastern European
countries, such as Bulgaria; nearly twice those
of Canada and Great Britain; and at least four
times the rates in France, Sweden, Germany,
and Japan.
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32
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Adolescent Pregnancy Rates
Fig. 6.4
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33
Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
• Why are U.S. adolescent pregnancy rates
so high?
• Three reasons based on cross-cultural studies
(Boonstra, 2002, pp. 9-10):
• Childbearing regarded as adult activity.
• Clear messages about sexual behavior.
• Access to family planning services.
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34
Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
• Decreasing U.S. Adolescent Pregnancy Rates
• In 2004, births to adolescent girls fell to a record
low (Child Trends, 2006).
• The rate of births to adolescent girls has dropped
30 percent since 1991. Reasons for these declines
include:
• Increased contraceptive use
• Fear of STDs
• School/community health classes
• Greater hope for future
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35
Adolescent Sexual Problems
U.S. Adolescent Birth Rate by Ethnicity, 1990 to 2006
Fig. 6.5
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36
Adolescent Sexual Problems
Births to 15- to 19-Year-Old Girls and the Percentage Unmarried,
1950–2005
Fig. 6.6
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37
Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
• Abortion
• Impassioned debate characterizes abortion in the
United States today, and this debate is likely to
continue in the foreseeable future (Brown, 2006).
• Abortion is easier to obtain in some countries,
most notably the Scandinavian countries, than in
the United States, where abortion and adolescent
sexual activity are more stigmatized.
• In the U.S., 19 percent of abortions are performed
on 15- to 19-year-old girls while less than 1 percent
are carried out with those less than 15 years of age
(Alan Guttmacher Institute, 2003).
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38
Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
•
Abortion
• Legislation mandating parental consent for an
adolescent girl’s abortion has been justified by
several assumptions:
• High risk of harm from abortion.
• Adolescents’ inability to make an adequately informed
decision.
• Benefits of parental involvement.
• Regardless of research outcomes, pro-life and prochoice advocates are convinced of the rightness of
their positions (Hyde & DeLamater, 2008). Their
conflict has a foundation in religious beliefs,
political convictions, and morality. This conflict
has no easy solutions.
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Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
• Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy
• Creates health risks for both baby and the mother.
• Infants are more likely to have low birth weights.
• A prominent factor in infant mortality—as well as
neurological problems and childhood illness (MalamitsiPuchner & Boutsikou, 2006).
• Adolescent mothers often drop out of school.
• It often is not pregnancy alone that leads to
negative consequences for an adolescent mother
and her offspring (Oxford & others, 2006).
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40
Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
• Adolescents as Parents
• Children of adolescent parents face problems
even before they are born (Chedraui, 2008).
• Adolescent mothers are less competent at child
rearing (Osofsky, 1990).
• Adolescent mothers have less realistic
expectations for their infants’ development than
do older mothers (Osofsky, 1990).
• Children born to adolescent mothers do not
perform as well on intelligence tests and have
more behavioral problems than children born to
mothers in their twenties (Silver, 1988).
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41
Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
• Adolescents as Parents
• Although some adolescent fathers are involved
with their children, the majority are not.
• Adolescent fathers have lower incomes, less
education, and more children than do men who
delay having children until their twenties.
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42
Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
• Reducing Adolescent Pregnancy
• Extensive efforts are needed to reduce adolescent
pregnancy and to help pregnant adolescents and
young mothers enhance their educational and
occupational opportunities (Key & others, 2008).
• John Conger (1988) offered four recommendations
for reducing the high rate of adolescent pregnancy:
1.
2.
3.
4.
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Sex education and family planning.
Access to contraceptive methods.
The life options approach.
Broad community involvement and support.
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43
Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
• Reducing Adolescent Pregnancy (Continued)
• Teen Outreach Program (TOP) (Dryfoos & Barkin, 2006).
• Girls, Inc. (Roth & others, 1998).
• Growing Together
• Will Power/Won’t Power
• Taking Care of Business
• Health Bridge
• Abstinence
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44
Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
• Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI)
• Contracted primarily through sexual contact.
• Not limited to vaginal intercourse but includes
oral-genital and anal-genital contact.
• STIs are an increasing health problem.
• Three STIs caused by viruses:
• AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
• Genital herpes
• Genital warts
• Three STIs caused by bacterial infections:
• Gonorrhea, syphilis, and chlamydia
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45
Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
• HIV and AIDS
• No single STI has caused more deaths, had a
greater impact on sexual behavior, or created more
public fear in recent decades, than HIV (Strong &
others, 2008).
• AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
•
•
•
•
A sexually transmitted infection.
Caused by Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
Destroys the body’s immune system.
Through December 2005, there were 41,149 cumulative
cases of AIDS in 13- to 24-year-olds in the United States
(Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2007).
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Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
•
AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
• There are some differences in AIDS cases in U.S. adolescents,
compared with AIDS cases in U.S. adults:
• A higher percentage of adolescent AIDS cases are acquired by
heterosexual transmission.
• A higher percentage of adolescents are asymptomatic individuals
(but will become symptomatic in adulthood)—that is, they are HIVpositive, but do not yet have AIDS.
• A higher percentage of African American and Latino AIDS cases
occur in adolescence.
• A special set of ethical and legal issues are involved in testing
and informing partners and parents of adolescents.
• Adolescents have less access to contraceptives and are less
likely to use them than adults.
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47
Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
•
AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
• HIV can be transmitted only by:
• Sexual contact
• Sharing of needles
• Blood transfusion (which has been tightly monitored) (Kelly, 2008)
• Approximately 90 percent of AIDS cases in the United States
continue to occur among men who have sex with other men
and intravenous drug users.
• A disproportionate increase among females who are
heterosexual partners of bisexual males or of intravenous
drug users has recently been noted (Center for Disease Control
and Prevention, 2008).
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48
Adolescent Sexual Problems
Understanding AIDS: What’s Risky, What’s Not
Fig. 6.6
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49
Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
•
Genital Herpes
• A sexually transmitted infection.
• Caused by a large family of viruses such as:
• Cold sores
• Chicken pox
• Mononucleosis
• Painful sores and blisters.
• It is direct contact with the sores that transmits the virus.
• The virus can pass through nonlatex condoms as well as
contraceptive foams and creams.
• It is estimated that more than 600,000 new genital herpes
infections are appearing in the 15- to 24-year-old age group in
the United States each year.
• There is no known cure (Paz-Bailey & others, 2008).
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Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
•
Genital Warts
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
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Caused by the human papilloma virus (HPV).
Does not always produce symptoms.
Very contagious.
Genital warts usually appear as small, hard, painless bumps
on the penis, in the vaginal area, or around the anus.
More than 9 million individuals in the United States in the 15to 24-year-old age group are estimated to have an HPV
infection.
Treatment involves the use of a topical drug, freezing, or
surgery.
The genital warts may return.
In some cases they are linked to cervical cancer.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommend
the vaccine Gardasil for all 11- and 12-year-old girls.
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51
Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
•
Gonorrhea
•
•
•
•
A STI.
Commonly called the “drip” or the “clap.”
Caused by a bacterium called neisseria gonorrhoeae.
Spread by contact between the infected moist membranes of
one individual and the membranes of another.
• It is estimated that more than 400,000 new cases appear each
year in the 15- to 24-year-old age group (Weinstock, Berman, &
Cates, 2004).
• Early symptoms in males—a discharge from the penis and
burning during urination.
• Early symptoms in females—a mild, sometimes irritating
vaginal discharge.
• Can be successfully treated in its early stages.
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52
Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
•
Syphilis
•
•
•
•
A STI.
Caused by a bacterium called treponema pallidum.
Transmitted by penile-vaginal, oral-genital, or anal contact.
Can also be transmitted from a pregnant woman to her fetus after the
fourth month of pregnancy.
• It is estimated that approximately 8,000 new cases appear in the United
States each year in the 15- to 24-year-old age group. (Weinstock, Berman,
& Cates, 2004).
• If untreated may progress through four phases:
•
•
•
•
Primary (chancre sores appear).
Secondary (general skin rash occurs).
Latent (can last for several years in which no overt symptoms are present).
Tertiary (cardiovascular disease, blindness, paralysis, skin ulcers, liver
damage, and even death) (Crooks & Baur, 2008).
• Can be effectively treated with penicillin.
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53
Adolescent Sexual Problems
(Continued from previous slide)
•
Chlamydia
• One of the most common of all STIs.
• Named for chlamydia trachomatis.
• An organism that spreads by sexual contact and infects the genital
organs of both sexes.
• About 4 million Americans are infected with chlamydia each
year.
• About 10 percent of all college students have chlamydia.
• It is highly infectious.
• Women run a 70 percent risk of contracting it in a single sexual
encounter with an infected partner.
• The male risk is estimated at between 25 and 50 percent.
• The estimated annual incidence in the 15- to 24-year-old age
group is 1 million individuals (Weinstock, Berman, & Cates, 2004).
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54
Adolescent Sexual Problems
•
Forcible Sexual Behavior and Sexual Harassment
– Rape
• A traumatic experience for the victim and those close to
her or him (Gannon & others, 2008).
• The victim initially feels shock and numbness and is often
acutely disorganized.
• Some women show their distress through words and tears,
others show more internalized suffering.
• They might experience:
–
–
–
–
–
–
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Depression
Fear
Anxiety
Sexual dysfunctions
Lifestyle changes
Suicide attempts
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55
Adolescent Sexual Problems
Completed Rape and Attempted Rape of College Women According to
Victim-Offender Relationship
Fig. 6.7
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56
Adolescent Sexual Problems
•
Forcible Sexual Behavior and Sexual Harassment
– Date, or Acquaintance Rape
• A form of rape.
• A coercive sexual activity directed at someone whom the
perpetrator knows (Clark & Carroll, 2008).
• An increasing problem in high schools and on college
campuses (Kaufman and the Committee on Adolescence, 2008;
Olshen & others, 2007).
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57
Adolescent Sexual Problems
•
Sexual Harassment
–
–
–
–
–
Sexual comments, jokes, gestures, and looks.
Sexist remarks and covert physical contact.
Sexual rumors.
Blatant propositions and sexual assaults.
Quid Pro Quo
• When a school employee threatens to base an educational
decision (such as a grade) on a student’s submission to
unwelcome sexual conduct.
– Hostile environment
• Unwelcome sexual conduct that is so severe, persistent, or
pervasive that it limits the student’s ability to benefit from their
education.
– A form of power and dominance over another.
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58
Sexual Literacy and Sex Education
•
•
Sexual Literacy
• Sexual information is abundant, but much of it is
misinformation.
Sources of Sex Information
• Adolescents can get information about sex from
many sources: parents, siblings, schools, peers,
magazines, television, and the Internet.
• A special concern is the accuracy of sexual
information.
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59
Sexual Literacy and Sex Education
•
Sources of Sex Information
• A special concern is the accuracy of sexual information.
• Many parents feel uncomfortable talking about sex.
• Many adolescents feel uncomfortable talking about sex.
• Contraceptive use by female adolescents also increases when
adolescents report that they can communicate about sex with
their parents (Fisher, 1987).
• Adolescents are far more likely to have conversations about
sex with their mothers than with their fathers (Kirkman,
Rosenthal, & Feldman, 2002).
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60
Cognitive Factors
•
Cognitive Factors in Adolescent Pregnancy
• Informing adolescents about contraceptives is not enough.
• What seems to predict whether or not they will use
contraceptives is their acceptance of themselves and their
sexuality.
• This acceptance requires not only emotionality maturity but
cognitive maturity.
• Here prevention is based on the belief that adolescents have
the cognitive ability to approach problem solving in a planned,
organized, and analytical manner.
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61
Cognitive Factors
•
Cognitive Factors in Adolescent Pregnancy
• Although many adolescents have the cognitive skills it does
not mean they use them when they are sexually aroused or
being pressured by a partner.
• Young adolescents (10 to 15 years of age) seem to experience
sex in a depersonalized way that is filled with anxiety and
denial.
• Middle adolescents (15 to 17 years of age) often romanticize
sexuality.
• Late adolescents (18 to 19 years of age) are to some degree
realistic and future oriented about sexual experiences, just as
they are about careers and marriage.
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62
Sexual Literacy and Sex Education
• Sex Education in Schools
• 89 percent of parents in Minnesota recommended
teaching adolescents about both abstinence and
comprehensive sex education that includes
contraception information (Eisenberg & others, 2008).
• 93 percent of Americans support the teaching of sex
education in high schools, and 84 percent support
its teaching in middle/junior high schools (SIECUS,
1999).
• The dramatic increase in HIV/AIDS and other STIs is
the main reason that Americans have supported sex
education in schools.
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63
Sexual Literacy and Sex Education
• Sex Education in Schools
• Sex education in U.S. schools today is increasingly
focused on abstinence and is less likely to present
students with comprehensive teaching that includes
information about birth control, abortion, and sexual
orientation (Eisenberg & others, 2008; Constantine,
2008; Hampton, 2008).
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64
Health and Well-Being
• A major controversy in sex education is
whether schools should have an abstinenceonly program or a program that emphasizes
contraceptive knowledge.
• Two recent research reviews found that
abstinence-only programs do not delay the
initiation of sexual intercourse and do not
reduce HIV risk behavior (Kirby, Laris, & Rolleir,
2007).
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65
Health and Well-Being
•
•
A recent study revealed that adolescents who
experienced comprehensive sex education were less
likely to report adolescent pregnancies than those who
were given abstinence-only sex education or no
education (Kohler, Manhart, & Lafferty, 2008).
A number of leading experts on adolescent sexuality
now conclude that sex education programs that
emphasize contraceptive knowledge do not increase
the incidence of sexual intercourse and are more likely
to reduce the risk of adolescent pregnancy and STIs
than abstinence-only programs (Constantine, 2008;
Eisenberg & others, 2008; Hampton, 2008; Hyde &
DeLamater, 2008).
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66
Health and Well-Being
•
•
•
U.S. sex education typically has focused on the
hazards of sex and the need to protect adolescent
females from male predators (Fine, 1988).
The contrast between the U.S. and other Western
nations is remarkable (Hampton, 2008).
Swedish State Commission on Sex Education
recommends that students gain knowledge to help
them experience sexual life as a source of happiness
and fellowship with others.
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67
Health and Well-Being
•
•
Swedish adolescents are sexually active at an earlier
age than are American adolescents, and they are
exposed to even more explicit sex on TV.
Teachers handle the subject of sex whenever it
becomes relevant, regardless of the subject they are
teaching.
• The idea is to dedramatize and demystify sex so that
familiarity will make students less vulnerable to unwanted
pregnancy and STIs.
•
The adolescent pregnancy rate in Sweden is one of the
lowest in the world.
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68
RESOURCES FOR IMPROVING THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENTS
•
AIDS Hotline
– National AIDS Information Clearinghouse
800–342–AIDS
800–344–SIDA (Spanish)
800–AIDS–TTY (Deaf)
The people answering the hotline will respond to any questions
children, youth, or adults have about HIV infection or AIDS.
Pamphlets and other materials on AIDS are available.
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69
RESOURCES FOR IMPROVING THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENTS
• Alan Guttmacher Institute
www.guttmacher.org
The Alan Guttmacher Institute is a resource for
information about adolescent sexuality. The
Institute publishes a well-respected journal,
Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health
(renamed in 2003, formerly Family Planning
Perspectives), which includes articles on many
dimensions of sexuality, such as adolescent
pregnancy, statistics on sexual behavior and
attitudes, and sexually transmitted infections.
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70
RESOURCES FOR IMPROVING THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENTS
•
•
“Adolescent Sexuality” by Diamond, L. & Savin-Williams,
R. (2009).
In Lerner, R.M. & Steinberg, L. (Eds). Handbook of
Adolescent Psychology. New York: Wiley.
National Sexually Transmitted Diseases Hotline
800–227–8922
This hotline provides information about a wide variety of
sexually transmitted infections.
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71
RESOURCES FOR IMPROVING THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENTS
•
Sex Information and Education Council of the United
States (SIECUS) www.siecus.org
This organization serves as an information clearinghouse
about sex education. The group’s objective is to promote the
concept of human sexuality as an integration of physical,
intellectual, emotional, and social dimensions.
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72
E-LEARNING TOOLS
To help you master the material in this
chapter, visit the Online Learning Center
for Adolescence, 13th edition at:
http://www.mhhe.com/santrocka13e
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