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A PowerPoint™ Slide Presentation for Prepared by Brian Malley, Ph.D., University of Michigan This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: •any public performance or display, including transmission over any network; •preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; •any rental, lease, or lending of the program. Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Constructing Social Reality • The Power of the Situation • Attitudes, Attitude Change, and Action • Prejudice • Social Relationships • Aggression, Altruism, and Prosocial Behavior Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Imagine cırcumstancesin which you have done everything to get a job interview on time, but nothinh has gone your way. • The electricity went off during the night, so alarm did not wake you. The friend who was supposed to give you ride had a flat tire. When you tried to get money for a taxi the ATM ate your card. • When you finally get to office, you know what the manager is thinking why would ı give a job to sb this unreliable? • You wnat to protest • It ıs not me, it is circumstances. İf you have completed the scenario you have bagan to enter the world of social psychology • Social Psychology – The branch of psychology that studies the effect of social variables on individual behavior, attitudes, perceptions, and motives also studies group and intergroup phenomena Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Social psychologists try to understand behaviour within its social context. • Social context includes the real, imgined or symbolic presence of others, the activities and interactions that take place between people, the feature of settings in which behaviour occurs, and the expectations and norms that govern behaviour in a given setting. Constructing social reality • We asked you to imagine everything that could go wrong in advance of a job interview. When you finally arrive at the manager’s office you and the manager have very different interpretations of the same event. • You know you have been a victim of circumstances. However, at least in the short run the manager judges you only by what is readily apparent: you are late, and you are disheveled. That is what we mean by constructing social reality. • The manager considers the evidence you present and makes an interpretation of the situation, if you still wish to get the jobyou will have to get the manager to construct a new interpretation. • Let’s look at one classical social psychology example in which people beliefs led them to view the same situation from different vantage points and make contrary conclusions about what really happened. • The study concerned a football game that tooks place some years ago between two Leaque teams. • An undefeated Princeton team played Dartmouth in the final game of the season. The game, which princeton won, was rough fillede with penalties and serious injuries to both sides. After the game the newspapers of the two schools offered very different accounts of what had happened. • A team of social psychology intrigued by the different perceptions, surveyed students at both schools showed them a film of the game and recorded their judgments about the number of the infractions commited by each of the teams. • Nearly all Princeton students judged the game as rough and dirty none saw it as clean and fair and most believed that Dartmouth players started the dirty play. • In contrast the majority of Dartmouth students thought both sides were equally to blame for the rough game and many thought it was rough, clean and fair. Morever, when the Princeton students viewed the game film they saw the Dratmouth team commit twice as many penalties as their own team. When viewing the same film Dartmouth students saw both sides commit thev same number of penalties. • This study makes clear that a complex social occurence such as a football game, can not be observed in objective, unbiased fashion. • Social Cognition – Process by which people select, interpret, and remember social information. Social situations obtain significance when observers selectively encode what is happening in terms of what they expect to see snd what to see Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • To explain how the Princeton and Dratmouth fans came to such different interpretations of the football game returns us to reaşm of prerception • Social Perception – Process by which people come to understand and categorize the behaviors of others • Attribution Theory – Describes the ways the social perceiver uses information to generate causal explanations. – You want to know the whys of life. – Why did my girlfriend break off the relationship – Why did he get the job not I? – Why did my parents divorceafter so many years of marriage? – All such whys lead to an analysis of possible causal determinants for some action, event or outcome. Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Attribution theory is a general approach to describing the ways the social perceiver uses informationto generate causal explanations • Attribution theory originated in the writings of Fritz Heider. • Heider, argued that people continullay make causal analyses as part of their attempts at general comprehension of the social world. – People are intuitive psychologists, who try to figure out what people are like and what causes their behaviour. • Dispositional causes • Situational causes • Heider believed that the questions that dominate most attributional analyses are whether the cause of a behaviour is found in the person (internal or dispositional causality) or in the situation (internal od situational causality) • Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) – Tendency to underestimate impact of situational factors and overestimate influence of dispositional factors – Suppose you have made an arragement to meet a friend at 7 o Clock. İt is now 7:30 and the friend stiil has not arrived. How might you explain this event to yourself Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • I m sure sth really important happened that made it impossible for her to be here on time. • What a jerk! Could not she try a little harder? • We have given you a choice again between situational and a dispositional attribution. • Research has shown that people are more likely, to chhose the second type,the dispositional explanation • Self-Serving Bias – People take credit for successes and deny responsibility for failures. – In many situations people tend to make dispositional attributions for success and situational attributions for failures. – I got the prize because of my ability, I lost the competition because it was rigged. Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • These patterns of attribution may be good for short-term self esteem. However, it may often may be important to have an accurate sense of what causes forces are at work in your life outcomes • Consider how you do in your classes. If you get an A , What attributions do you make, How about if you get C ? • Research has demonstrated that the students tend to attributehigh grades to their own efforts and low grades to factors that external to themselves. • Self-Fulfilling Prophecy – Prediction modifies interactions so as to produce what is expected – Suppose for example, you go to a party expectation to have a great time. Suppose a friend goes to expecting to be boring. – Can you imagine the different ways in which the two of you might behave given these expectations. – These alternative ways of behaving may alter how others at the party behave toward you. In that case which of you is actually more likely to have a good time at the party. • Behavioral Confirmation – People behave in ways that elicit specific expected reactions and then use those reactions to confirm their beliefs Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • One of the most powerful demonstration of social expectancy unfolde in elementary school classrooms. • Provided teachers with information to create self-fulfilling prophecies. • Elemantary school teachers in Boston were informed by researchers that their testing had revealed that some of their testing had revealed that some of their students were academic spurters. The teachers were lead to believe that these particular students were intelectual bloomers who will show unusual gains during the academic year. • In fact there was no objective basis for that prediction. • However, by the end of that school year, 30 percent of the children arbitrarily named as spurters had gained an average of 22 IO points! Almost all of them had gained at least 10 points. • Their gain in intellectual performance as measured by a standart test of intelligence was significantly greater than that of their control group classmates who had started out the same average IQ • How did the teacher’s false expectations get translated into such positive student performance? • First, the teachers acted more warmly and more friendly toward the late bloomers, creating a climate of socail approval and acceptance. • Second, they put greater demands, involving both quality and level of difficulty of material to be learned on those for whom they had high hopes. • Third, they gaave more immediate and clearer fedback about the selected student’s performance. • Social Role – Social-defined pattern of behavior • Rules – Behavioral guidelines • Social Norms – Expectation a group has for its members Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Conformity – Tendency for people to adopt behaviors, attitudes, and values of other members of a group – Information Influence • Sherif’s autokinetic effect • Norm crystallization – Normative Influence • Asch effect Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Minority Influence and Nonconformity – Serge Moscovici Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Group Polarization – The tendency of groups to make decisions that are more extreme then the decisions that would be made by the members acting alone – Two underlying process • Information-influence • Social comparison Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Groupthink – Irving Janis – Tendency of decision making group to filter out the undesirable input so that a consensus may be reached • Factors leading to Groupthink: – High level of group cohesiveness – Isolation of group from outside information or influences – Dynamic, influential leader – High stress from external threats Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Obedience paradigm – Test situation – To shock or not to shock? • Demand characteristics – Why do people obey authority? • Normative and informational sources of information Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Attitude – Positive or negative evaluation of people, objects, and ideas – Cognitive – Affective (emotional) – Behavioral Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Elaboration likelihood model – Defines how likely it is that people will focus their cognitive process to elaborate on a persuasive message • Central routes • Peripheral routes • Motivation Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Dissonance Theory – Leon Festinger – Cognitive Dissonance • State of conflict someone experiences after making a decision, taking an action, or being exposed to information that is contrary to prior beliefs, feelings, or values Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Self-perception Theory – Daryl Bem – People observe themselves to figure out the reasons they act as they do Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Compliance – A change in behavior consistent with a direct request • Techniques used to bring about compliance: – Reciprocity • Reciprocity norm – Commitment Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Prejudice – A learned attitude towards a target object, involving negative feelings, negative beliefs that justify the attitude and a behavioral intention to avoid, control, dominate, or eliminate those in the target group – Kenneth Clark Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Social Categorization – Process by which people organize their social environment by categorizing themselves and others into groups – In-group • Group with which a person identifies – Out-groups • Group with which a person does not identify Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • In-group bias – An evaluation of one’s own group as better then others • Racism • Sexism Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Stereotypes – Generalizations about a group of people in which the same characteristics are assigned to all members of a group – Stereotypes encode expectations – People use stereotypical behaviors to produce behavioral confirmation Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Muzafer Sherif – Robbers Cave Experiment – Contact hypothesis • A program combating prejudice must foster personal interaction in the pursuit of shared goals Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Liking – Physical attractiveness – Similarity – Reciprocity • Loving – Passion – Intimacy – Commitment Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Individual Differences – Impulsive Aggression – Instrumental Aggression • Situational Influences – Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis – Direct Provocation and Escalation Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Constructing Social Reality – Origins of Attribution Theory – Fundamental Attribution Error – Self-Serving Biases – Expectations and Self-Fulfilling Prophecies – Behaviors that Confirm Expectations Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • C. Daniel Batson’s forces that prompt people to act for the public good: – Altruism – Egoism – Collectivism – Principlism Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Altruism – Prosocial behaviors without consideration for self safety or interests • Reciprocal Altruism Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Bystander Intervention – Bib Latané and John Darley – Willingness to assist a person in need • Diffusion of Responsibility – The larger the number of bystanders, the less responsibility any one bystander feels to help Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Bystander must notice the emergency • Bystander must label events as an emergency • Bystander must feel responsibility Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Constructing Social Reality – Attribution Theory – Fundamental Attribution Error – Self-Serving Bias – Self-Fulfilling Prophecies Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Attitudes, Attitude Change, and Action – Attitudes and Behaviors – Processes of Persuasion – Persuasion by Your Own Actions – Compliance • Prejudice – Origins of Prejudice – Effects of Stereotypes – Reversing Prejudice Copyright © Pearson Education 2010 • Social Relationships – Liking – Loving • Aggression, Altruism, and Prosocial Behavior – Individual Differences – Situational Influences – Roots of Altruism – Effects of the Situation on Prosocial Behavior Copyright © Pearson Education 2010