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Blok Psikologi Sosial Social Psychology Goes to Work: Applying Social Psychology to Work Settings and Entrepreneurship Copyright 2013, KBK Psikologi Sosial Untar Social Psychology Goes to Work • Work-Related Attitudes: Hakikat Kepuasan kerja dan dampak kepuasan kerja • Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB): Prosocial Behavior at Work • Kepemimpinan: Influence in Group Settings • Psikologi Sosial Entrepreneurship Copyright 2013, KBK Psikologi Sosial Untar Social Psychology Goes to Work • Siapakah Psikolog Industri dan Organisasi itu? —specialize in studying all forms of behavior and cognition in work settings Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon Work-Related Attitudes • Kepuasan Kerja—attitudes individuals hold concerning their jobs – Penyebab • Faktor Organisasi – Being the only member of their ethnicity in the workplace is a concern for ethnic minority workers. • Faktor Personal • The influence of genetic factors on personality – Result is that job satisfaction is very stable over time and jobs. Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon Work-Related Attitudes Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon Work-Related Attitudes – Dampak dampak kepauasan Kerja • Kepuasan kerja berhubungan sangat lemah dengan kinerja karyawan – Many jobs do not allow for variations in performance. – Many other factors influence job performance. – Job satisfaction may be a result of good job performance rather than a cause of it. Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon Organizational Citizenship Behavior • Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)— people helping each other at work that is not a required part of their jobs – Bersifat suka rela dan tidak menuntut external rewards. – Five categories of OCB • Altruism (helping others perform their jobs) • Conscientiousness (doing more than is required) • Civic virtue (showing concern for the organization) • Sportsmanship (displaying tolerance) • Courtesy (preventing interpersonal conflicts) Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon Organizational Citizenship Behavior – What factors are related to helping at work? • Belief that one is being treated fairly according to the principles of distributive, procedural, and interactional justice (trust in one’s boss and the organization) – Also influences how much employees are willing to help customers, as well as coworkers • Reciprocity / timbal balik (trading favors) – The outcome may depend on if one is giving or receiving a favor. • Employees’ perceptions regarding the breadth of their jobs • Strong organizational commitment (attitudes toward the organization) Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon Think of a time you’ve been unfairly treated at work • Were you ever treated rudely or disrespectfully? • Were you up for a promotion / raise / job, and didn’t get it when you thought you should have? • Why was it unfair? How did you know? • How did you react? Did you take action? Why or why not? Justice Perceptions are important • Justice Perceptions: employee judgments about whether their work situation is fair • Justice Perceptions in organizations have been found to be related to: – – – – – – Job Satisfaction Organizational Commitment Job Performance Withdrawal Behaviors Counterproductive behaviors Self-perceptions Types of Justice Perceptions • Distributive Justice: perceptions of the fairness of a particular outcome • Procedural Justice: perceptions of whether the process used to make the decision was fair • Interactional Justice: perceptions of whether organizational agents implement procedures fairly, by treating people respectfully and explaining decisions adequately Distributive Justice • Rules for allocating resources – Equity – resources are distributed to employees with respect to their abilities or contributions – Equality – resources are distributed so each person gets the same outcome, regardless of their contributions – Need – resources are distributed to the person who needs them more Distributive Justice: Equity Theory • Employees compute a ratio of how much they contribute to the organization and how much they get back from the company • Employees choose a coworker and computes their ratio • Employees then compare ratios, and react on the basis of this comparison. Unbalanced ratios create ‘equity distress,’ which lead to a variety of responses including changes in work effort or quality Procedural Justice • What are some things that lead to a procedure being seen as fair? – – – – – – ‘Voice’ – getting a say in things Consistency Bias Suppression Accuracy Correctability Ethicality When is Procedural Justice Most Important? Favorable Reactions to Org. High Procedural Justice Low Procedural Justice Unfavorable Low High Outcome Favorability Interactional Justice • Interpersonal component – treating people with dignity and respect; refraining from improper remarks or comments • Informational component – providing adequate explanations for decisions Organizational Commitment • Organizational commitment is defined as the desire on the part of an employee to remain a member of the organization. – Organizational commitment influences whether an employee stays a member of the organization (is retained) or leaves to pursue another job (turns over). • Employees who are not committed to their organizations engage in withdrawal behavior, defined as a set of actions that employees perform to avoid the work situation— behaviors that may eventually culminate in quitting the organization. Organizational Commitment and Employee Withdrawal Discussion Question • What creates a desire to remain a member of an organization? Types of Commitment • Affective commitment – a desire to remain a member of an organization due to an emotional attachment to, and involvement with, that organization. – You stay because you want to. • Continuance commitment - a desire to remain a member of an organization because of an awareness of the costs associated with leaving it. – You stay because you need to. • Normative commitment - a desire to remain a member of an organization due to a feeling of obligation. – You stay because you ought to. Affective Commitment • Employees who feel a sense of affective commitment identify with the organization, accept that organization’s goals and values, and are more willing to exert extra effort on behalf of the organization. – “She’s committed” – “He’s loyal” A Social Network Diagram The erosion model suggests that employees with fewer bonds will be most likely to quit the organization. The social influence model suggests that employees who have direct linkages with “leavers” will themselves become more likely to leave. Continuance Commitment • Continuance commitment exists when there is a profit associated with staying and a cost associated with leaving. • Tends to create a more passive form of loyalty. – Increases to continuance commitment: • Total amount of investment (in terms of time, effort, energy, etc.) an employee has made in mastering his work role or fulfilling his organizational duties • Lack of employment alternatives Embeddedness and Continuance Commitment • Embeddedness summarizes a person’s links to the organization and the community, his sense of fit with that organization and community, and what he would have to sacrifice for a job change. – Strengthens continuance commitment by providing more reasons why a person needs to stay in his or her current position (and more sources of anxiety if he or she were to leave). Embeddedness and Continuance Commitment, Cont’d Normative Commitment • Normative commitment exists when there is a sense that staying is the “right” or “moral” thing to do. • The sense that people should stay with their current employers may result from personal work philosophies or more general codes of right and wrong developed over the course of their lives. • Build a sense of obligation-based commitment among employees – Create an obligation that the employee is in the organization’s debt – Becoming a particularly charitable organization Withdrawal Behaviors • Exit - active, destructive response by which an individual either ends or restricts organizational membership. • Voice - an active, constructive response in which individuals attempt to improve the situation. • Loyalty - a passive, constructive response that maintains public support for the situation while the individual privately hopes for improvement. • Neglect - defined as a passive, destructive response in which interest and effort in the job declines. Organizational Commitmen Low High Four Types of Employees Task Performance High Low Stars Citizens Lone Wolves Apathetics Task Performance and Organizational Commitment • Stars possess high commitment and high performance and are held up as role models for other employees. – Likely respond to negative events with voice • Citizens possess high commitment and low task performance but perform many of the voluntary “extra-role” activities that are needed to make the organization function smoothly. – Likely to respond to negative events with loyalty Task Performance and Organizational Commitment, Cont’d • Lone wolves possess low levels of organizational commitment but high levels of task performance and are motivated to achieve work goals for themselves, not necessarily for their company. – Likely to respond to negative events with exit • Apathetics possess low levels of both organizational commitment and task performance and merely exert the minimum level of effort needed to keep their jobs. – Respond to negative events with neglect Attitudes and Helping at Work • What are your thoughts? – Have you been an employee in a work environment in which job satisfaction was low? • If so, what factors were responsible for creating the low levels of job satisfaction? • Did you or your coworkers engage in any behaviors indicative of feeling dissatisfied with your jobs? – If so, what were these behaviors? – What are ways that employers can increase the amount of organizational citizenship behavior shown by their employees? Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon Kepemimpinan • Kepemimpinan—Proses memengaruhi yang dilakukan pemimpin terhadap bawahannya / anggota kelompok demi pencapaian sasaran kelompok. Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon Leadership – Why do some people become leaders? • Great Person Theory of Leadership—leaders possess certain traits that set them apart from other persons and that are possessed by all leaders no matter where or when they live – Recent research shows that leaders do differ from others. • Leaders tend to possess the following traits: – Drive, self-confidence, creativity, leadership motivation, and a high level of flexibility – Regarding the “Big Five” dimensions of personality, leaders tend to be high in extraversion, openness to experience, and agreeableness. Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon Leadership – What do leaders do? • Initiating Structure (production orientation)—a key dimension of leader behavior in which leaders are primarily concerned with getting the job done • Consideration (person orientation)—a key dimension of leader behavior in which leaders focus on establishing good relations with their subordinates and on being liked by them – Leaders who are high on both dimensions may be superior leaders. • Other dimensions of leader behavior – Autocratic (makes all decisions) versus participative dimension – Directive (micro-manage) versus permissive dimension » The best style of behavior depends on the situation Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon Leadership Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon Leadership – Transformational Leaders—leaders who, because of several characteristics, exert profound (besar) effects on their followers • Viewed as being charismatic, which is a result of demonstrating: – Idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration • Also show high levels of self-confidence, excellent communication skills, an exciting personal style, and are skilled at impression management • These leaders wield great influence over many people. – Followers become more dependent on these leaders while at the same time they feel more empowered because of them. Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon Leadership – Transactional Leaders—leaders who direct their groups by rewarding them for desired behavior, by taking action to correct mistakes or departures from existing rules, and who generally strengthen existing structures and strategies within an organization • This type of leader is more typical and can be very effective in most ordinary work settings. – Transformational leaders appear to perform better than transactional leaders in uncertain, chaotic work environments. Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon Leadership Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon Entrepreneurship • Entrepreneurs—individuals who recognize an opportunity for a new business and start one – Why do some people become entrepreneurs? • Social factors: Modeling (observational learning) • Cognitive factors: Optimistic bias, planning fallacy, the perception of low levels of risk • Personal factors: High in extraversion, low in openness to experience – What influences the success of entrepreneurs? • Social factors: Social skills (effective at social interaction, social perception, persuasion, and making good first impressions) Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon Entrepreneurship • Cognitive factors: Engage in counterfactual thinking significantly less frequently, focus on the future and not the past; Good at knowing when to stick with something and when to switch strategies (i.e., avoiding the pitfalls of sunk costs) – Regulatory Focus Theory—in regulating their own behavior, individuals adopt one of two contrasting perspectives: a promotion focus, in which they focus on attaining positive outcomes, or a prevention focus, in which they focus on avoiding negative outcomes » Which focus is more effective depends on the availability of better alternatives Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon Leadership and Entrepreneurship • What are your thoughts? – Have you encountered good leaders in the workplace? • If so, what characteristics made them good leaders in that work environment? – What are possible drawbacks of transformational leaders in the workplace? – What makes some people likely to become successful entrepreneurs? Copyright 2006, Allyn and Bacon Why People Join Groups • Security • Status • Self-esteem • Affiliation • Power • Goal Achievement Stages of Group Development EXHIBIT 8-2 Group Behavior Model EXHIBIT 8-4 External Conditions Imposed on the Group Imposed Conditions: • Organization’s overall strategy • Authority structures • Formal regulations • Resource constraints • Selection process • Performance and evaluation system • Organization’s culture • Physical work setting Group Member Resources • Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities – Interpersonal skills • Conflict management and resolution • Collaborative problem solving • Communication – Personality Characteristics • Sociability • Initiative • Openness • Flexibility Group Structure - Roles • Formal Leadership – Leadership that is imposed on the group by the organization. – Leaders who derive their power from the positions they occupy in the organizational structure. – Formal leaders may or may not also be the informal leaders of the groups in which they function. Group Structure - Roles (cont’d) Group Structure - Roles (cont’d) Group Structure - Norms Classes of Norms: • Performance norms • Appearance norms • Social arrangement norms • Allocation of resources norms Group Structure - Norms (cont’d) Examples of Cards Used in Asch’s Study EXHIBIT 8-5 Group Structure - Norms (cont’d) Group Structure - Size Performance Other conclusions: • Odd number groups do better than even. Group Size • Groups of 7 or 9 perform better overall than larger or smaller groups. Group Structure - Cohesiveness Increasing group cohesiveness: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Make the group smaller. Encourage agreement with group goals. Increase time members spend together. Increase group status and admission difficultly. Stimulate competition with other groups. Give rewards to the group, not individuals. Physically isolate the group. Relationship Between Group Cohesiveness, Performance Norms, and Productivity Group Processes Group Tasks • Decision-making – Large groups facilitate the pooling of information about complex tasks. – Smaller groups are better suited to coordinating and facilitating the implementation of complex tasks. – Simple, routine standardized tasks reduce the requirement that group processes be effective in order for the group to perform well. Group Decision Making • Strengths – More complete information – Increased diversity of views – Higher quality of decisions – Increased acceptance of solutions • Weaknesses – More time consuming – Increased pressure to conform – Domination by one or a few members – Ambiguous responsibility Group Decision-Making Techniques