Download chapter8 individual behavior

Chapter
Foundations of
Individual
Behavior
Copyright ©2011 Pearson Education
Learning Outcomes
• Identify the focus and goals of organizational
behavior (OB)
• Explain the role that attitudes play in job
performance
• Describe different personality theories
• Describe perception and the factors that influence it
• Discuss learning theories and their relevance in
shaping behavior
• Discuss contemporary issues in OB
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What Is Organizational Behavior?
• Behavior
– The actions of people
• Organizational
Behavior
– The study of the
actions of people at
work.
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What Is Organizational Behavior?
• OB has a small visible dimension that an obvious and
a much larger hidden portion.
• The visible aspects are: strategies, objectives,
policies, procedure, structure, technology, formal
authority, and chain of command.
• But there are other elements that managers need to
understand, these elements influence how
employees behave at work.
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What are the focus and goals of
organizational behavior?
• OB focuses on three areas: Individual behavior, group
behavior, and organizational aspects.
• The goals of OB are to explain, predict, and influence
employee behavior.
• The six important behaviors are as follows:
• 1. employee productivity:
• A performance measure of both work efficiency and
effectiveness
• Managers want to know what factors will influence
the efficiency and effectiveness
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What are the focus and goals of
organizational behavior?
2) Absenteeism
– The failure to show up for work
3) Turnover
– Voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal
from an organization
– In absenteeism and turnover, managers can not
eliminate them but at least they can minimize
them especially among high- performing
employees.
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Focus of OB (cont.)
4) Organizational Citizenship Behavior
– Discretionary behavior that’s not part of an
employee’s formal job requirements, but which
promotes the effective functioning of the
organization (doing more than their usual job
duties)
5) Job Satisfaction (it is attitude rather than
behavior):
– An employee’s general attitude toward his or her
job
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Focus of OB (cont.)
6) Workplace Misbehavior:
– Any intentional employee behavior that is
potentially harmful to the organization or
individuals within the organization
– Know we will understand four psychological
factors- employee attitude, perception,
personality, and learning- that can help us to
explain, predict, and influence employee behavior
( six previous behaviors)
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What Role Do Attitudes Play in Job
Performance?
• Attitudes
– Evaluative statements, either favorable or
unfavorable, concerning objects, people, or events
– Attitude reflect how an individual feels about
something.
– There are three components of an attitude:
• Cognitive Component
– The part of an attitude made up of the beliefs,
opinions, knowledge, and information held by a
person
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Attitude components
• Affective Component
– The part of an attitude that’s the emotional or
feeling part
– E.g.: “I don’t like John, because he smokes”
• Behavioral Component
– The part of an attitude that refers to an intention
to behave in a certain way toward someone or
something
– E.g.: I may choose to avoid John because of my
feelings about hem.
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What attitude may employees
hold?
• Managers specifically interested in job related
attitudes, and the most important and studied
attitudes are: job satisfaction, job involvement,
organizational commitment, and employee
engagement
• Job Involvement
– The degree to which an employee identifies with
his or her job, actively participates in it, and
considers his or her job performance important
for self-worth
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What attitude may employees
hold?
• Organizational Commitment
– An employee’s orientation toward the
organization in terms of his or her loyalty to,
identification with, and involvement in the
organization
– A new concept of job attitude is:
• Employee Engagement
– When employees are connected to, satisfied with,
and enthusiastic about their jobs
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What is Cognitive Dissonance
Theory?
Leon Festinger, in the 1950s, wanted to explain the
relationship between attitudes and behavior
• Cognitive Dissonance
– Any inconsistency between attitudes or between
behavior and attitudes
– Individual try to reconcile attitude and behavior
inconsistencies by:
– 1)altering their attitudes.
– 2) alerting their behavior.
– 3) rationalizing and justifying the inconsistency.
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What is Cognitive Dissonance
Theory?
– Individual who experience dissonance, they will
move toward reducing it.
– If the issues underlying the dissonance are of
minimal importance, if an individual perceives
that the dissonance is uncontrollable (no choice),
or if reward are significant enough to offset the
dissonance, the individual will not be under great
tension to reduce the dissonance.
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What Do Managers Need to Know
About Personality?
• Personality
– A unique combination of emotional, thought, and
behavioral patterns that affect how a person
reacts to situations and interacts with others.
– We will look at personality because it affect how
and why people behave.
– Researchers attempted to focus on which
personality types and personality trait would
identify information about the individual . Two
theories have been recognized.
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Describe the different personality
theories
• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
– A personality assessment that uses four
dichotomies of personality to identify different
personality types.
• Most widely used instrument in the world.
• Participants are classified on four axes to determine
one of 16 possible personality types.
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The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Sociable and
Assertive
Extroverted
(E)
Practical
Orderly, and routine
Intuitive
(N)
Sensing (S)
Use Reason
and Logic, analysis
Thinking
(T)
Planned, orderly
& Structure way
Quiet and Shy
Introverted
(I)
Unconscious
Processes, look to the big
picture
Feeling (F)
Judging (J)
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publishing as Prentice Hall
Uses Values, believes
& Emotions
Perceiving
(P)
Flexible and
Spontaneous
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The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
– The four dichotomies are:
– Social interaction( extraversion vs. introversion)
– Preference for gathering data (sensing vs.
intuition)
– Preference for decision making ( thinking vs.
feeling)
– Style of making decisions ( judging vs. perceiving)
– This theory is important to know these personality
types as they influence the way people interact
and solve a problems.
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What is The Big Five Model of
personality dimensions?
• Big Five Model
– A personality trait model
that examines five traits:
1. Extraversion
2. Agreeableness
3. Conscientiousness,
4. Emotional stability
5. Openness to experience
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The Big Five Model of Personality
Dimensions
Extroversion
• Sociable, talkative, and assertive
• Good-natured, cooperative, and trusting
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Emotional Stability
Openness to
Experience
• Responsible, dependable,
persistent, and organized
• Calm, self-confident, secure under stress
(positive), versus nervous, depressed, and
insecure under stress (negative)
• Curious, imaginative, artistic, and
sensitive
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How Do the Big Five Traits Predict
Behavior?
• Certain traits have been shown to strongly relate to
higher job performance:
– Highly conscientious people develop more job
knowledge, exert greater effort, and have better
performance.
– Emotional stability is related to job satisfaction.
– Extroverts tend to be happier in their jobs and have
good social skills.
– Open people are more creative and can be good
leaders.
– Agreeable people
are good in social settings.
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WHAT IS EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE?
• Emotional Intelligence (EI)
– The ability to notice and to manage emotional
cues and information
– People who understand their own emotions and
are good at reading others’ emotions may be
more effective in their jobs.
– It is an assortment of nongonitive skills,
capabilities, and competencies that influence
person’s ability to cope with environmental
demand and pressure.
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Five Dimensions of EI
– It composed of five dimensions:
– Self-awareness: Being aware of what you’re feeling.
– Self-management: The ability to manage your own
emotions
– Self-motivation :The ability to persist in the face of
setbacks and failures
– Empathy: The ability to sense how others are feeling
– Social skills: The ability to handle the emotions of others
– Employer should consider emotional intelligence as a
criterion in their selection process especially for jobs with
high degree of social interaction.
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Can Personality Traits Predict
Work-Related Behaviors?
• There are five personality traits that could explain and
influence individual behavior in organization
• locus of Control (who control an individual behavior)?
– The degree to which people believe they control their own
fate. (internal vs. external)
• Machiavellianism (“Mach”)
– A measure of the degree to which people are pragmatic,
maintain emotional distance, and believe that ends justify
means
– High Machs are manipulative, win more often, and persuade
more than they are persuaded. E.g.: salespersons that should
have bargaining skills
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Personality and Work Behavior
(cont.)
• Self-Esteem (SE)
– An individual’s degree of like or dislike for himself or herself
• Self-Monitoring
– A personality trait that measures the ability to adjust behavior
to external situational factors
– Low self monitors can’t alter their behavior, their behavior is
consistent between who they are and what they do. Whereas,
high self monitors are capable to present contradiction
between their public personality and their private ones.
• Propensity for risk taking ( willingness to take chances)
• High risk takers make rapid (faster) decisions with less
information than low risk takers.
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How do we match personalities
and jobs?
• The best –documented Personality-Job Fit theory
was developed by psychologist John Holland
• Holland identified six basic personality types.
• The theory proposes that satisfaction is highest and
turnover lowest when personality and occupation
are compatible
• E.g.: “social individuals should be in people type
jobs”
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What is Perception and What
Influences It?
• Perception
– A process by which we give meaning to our
environment by organizing and interpreting
sensory impressions
– Research on perception demonstrate that
individual may look at the same thing and
perceive it differently.
– E.g. you may evaluate someone negatively or
positively as you have interpret what you saw>>
therefore, we behave according our perception
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What influence perception?
• There are three factors that are shape perception:
perceiver, object or target being perceived, and the
context of situation.
• 1. perceiver: individual’s characteristics( attitudes, personality,
interest, and past experience) will influence the
interpretation.
• 2. the target: the characteristics of the object being observed
can affect what is perceived. E.g.: loud vs. quiet people.
Because targets are not looked at in isolation, the relationship
of target to its background also influences perception
• 3. the context in which we see the object: the time, location,
lighting, and temperature can influence attention.
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Attribution Theory
• Our perception and judgment of a person’s behavior
are influenced by the assumption we make about the
person’s internal state. These assumptions have led
researchers to attribution theory.
• Attribution Theory
– A theory used to explain how we judge people
differently, based on what meaning we attribute
to a given behavior
– Our perception and judgment of others is
significantly influenced by our assumption of the
other person’s internal or external caused.
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Attribution Theory
• When we observe the individual behavior, we attempt
to determine whether it was internally (believed to be
under the control of the individual) or externally (caused
behavior result from outside causes.
• This determination depends on three factors:
1. Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different
situations (refer to whether and individual displays a behavior
in many situations or whether it is particular in one situation)
Usual and regular behavior>>low>> internal attribution
Unusual and unique behavior>>high>> external attribution
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Attribution Theory (cont)
2. consensus:
If everyone who faced with a similar situation responds
in the same way
High consensus>>> external attribution
Low consensus>>> internal attribution
3. consistency:
Respond in the same way over time, does the
employee engage in the behavior regularly and
consistently?
High consistency>> internal attribution
Low consistency>>> external attribution
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Can Attributes Be Distorted?
• Fundamental Attribution Error
– The tendency to underestimate the influence of
external factors and overestimate the influence of
internal factors when making judgments about
the behavior of others. E.g.: we blame people first,
not the situations.
• Self-Serving Bias
– The tendency for individuals to attribute their
successes to internal factors while putting the
blame for failures on external factors. E.g.: it is our
success, but their failure.
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Perception Shortcuts
• All of us use a number of shortcuts to judge others
that are:
• Selective Perception
– The tendency for people to only absorb parts of
what they observe, allowing them to “speed read”
others
• Assumed Similarity
– An observer’s perception of others is influenced
more by the observer’s own characteristics than
by those of the person observed
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Perception Shortcuts (cont.)
• Stereotyping
– When we judge someone on the basis of our
perception of a group he or she is part of
– For instance: “ married people are more stable
employees than single persons”.
• Halo Effect
– When we form a general impression of a person
on the basis of a single characteristic, such as,
intelligence, sociability, and appearance.
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How Does Learning Theory Explain
Behavior?
• Learning
– A relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs as a result of experience.
– There are two learning theories help us
understand how and why individual behavior
occurs:
• Operant Conditioning
– A theory of learning that says behavior is a
function of its consequences
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Operant Conditioning
• This theory says that people learn to behave to get
something they want or avoid something they don’t
want.
• It is voluntary or learned behavior, not reflexive or
unlearned behavior.
• The tendency to repeat learned behavior is influenced
by :
• Reinforcement that result from behavior: strengthens and
increase the repeating of the behavior.
• Lack of reinforcement that result from behavior: weakens and
decrease repeating of the behavior.
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Operant Conditioning
• People will most likely engaged in desired behaviors if
they positively reinforced (rewarded) for doing it. But
behavior that isn’t rewarded, is less likely to be
repeated.
• Examples of operant conditioning:
“ your lecturer says if you want a high grade in this course,
you must perform well on tests by answering them
correctly.
• If the behavior isn’t positively rewarded or reinforced,
the probability that the behavior will be repeated
declines . E.g.
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What Is Social Learning Theory?
• Social Learning Theory
– A theory of learning that says people can learn
through observation and direct experience
– Much of what we have learned comes from
watching others(models), parents, teachers,
peers, television, and managers.
– The influence of others is central to the social
learning viewpoint. The amount of influence that
these models have on an individual determined
by four process:
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Social learning (cont)
• 1. attention process: people learn from their model when
they pay attention to its critical features; attractive, available,
or thought to be important.
• 2. retention process: a model’s influence will depend on
how well the individual remember the model’s action.
• 3. motor reproduction process: after a person has seen a
new behavior by observing the model, the watching must
become doing.
• 4. reinforcement process: the individual will be motivated
to show the modeled behavior if reward are provided.
Behavior that been reinforced will be given more attention,
learned better, and performed more often.
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How can managers shape
behavior?
• Shaping behavior
– The process of guiding learning in graduated
steps, using reinforcement or lack of
reinforcement
– Four ways can be used to shape behavior:
– positive reinforcement>> when a response is
followed with something pleasant.
– negative reinforcement>> rewarding a response
with the termination or withdrawal of something
pleasant.
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Shaping behavior (cont)
• Punishment>> penalize undesirable behavior.
• Extinction>> eliminating any reinforcement that is
maintain a behavior. When behavior isn’t reinforced,
it gradually disappears.
• Both positive and negative reinforcement result in
learning. They strengthen a desired response and
increase of repetition.
• Both punishment and extinction also result in
learning, however, they weaken behavior and tend to
decrease its subsequent frequency.
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What contemporary OB issues face
managers?
• There are two OB issues having a major influence on
managers’ job today.
Generational differences and workplace:
• The challenge of managing Gen Y workers are:
1. they bring new attitudes to the workplace.
2. The main challenges are over issues such as
appearance, technology and management style.
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Copyright ©2011 Pearson Education
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What contemporary OB issues face
managers?
Negative behavior: (misbehavior)
Workplace misbehavior can be dealt with by:
1. recognizing that its here and it is exist.
2. Carefully screening potential employees for possible
negative tendencies.
3. Most importantly, by paying attention to employee
attitudes through surveys about job satisfaction and
dissatisfaction.
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Copyright ©2011 Pearson Education
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