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Ethnic Identity a presentation by Stephen Fox Background Herodotus (484-425 BC) observed differences between customs of the Greeks and of the Lydians, Scythians, Medes, Assyrians, Persians and Egyptians (from Marsella, Dubanowsky, Hamada & Morse, 2000) Background Tacitus (55-118 AD) in Germania described differences between Romans and the Germanic tribes (from Marsella, Dubanowsky, Hamada & Morse, 2000) Background “Ethnic” has been used interchangeably with other concepts such as nationality, race, religion, and culture (Betancourt&Lopez, 1993; Birman, 1994; Oppenheimer, 2001; Phinney, 1996). Background Academics began study of ethnic peoples in the mid 19th century, setting foundations for anthropology and ethnomusicology. By 1900, Wundt began his 10 volume series, Volker psychologie. Background Politically, ethnic affiliation came to the forefront first with civil rights in the 1960s (e.g. Black Power, Hawaiian Renaissance), when leaders sought to define a group identity (e.g. Phinney, 1990) Background Ethnic issues have since increased: Demographic changes due to Birthrate pattern alterations Voluntary and forced migration are changing the shapes of entire societies. (e.g. Phinney, 1990, Marsela & Ring, 2003, Jablensky, et al., 1994) Background Resulting issues include Psychological health, Social conflicts, Educational difficulties, Social resource allocation, etc. (e.g. Phinney, 1990, Marsela & Ring, 2003, Jablensky, et al., 1994) Ethnic Identity Tajfel (1981): “That part of a person’s self concept which derives from his knowledge of his membership of a social group (or groups), together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership.” (from Phinney, 1990) Ethnic Identity The sense of attachment a person has to a particular group, including beliefs and feelings linking them to these groups (Liebkind, 1992) Ethnic Identity Ethnic identity: perceptions of and personal affiliation with an ethnic group and culture (Keefe, 1992) Ethnic Identity Ethnic culture: a pattern of behaviors and beliefs that sets a group apart from others Ethnic group membership: network of people with whom one is in contact (Keefe, 1992) Ethnic Identity Cultural awareness: familiarity with a culture through personal and familial experiences Ethnic loyalty: perceptions and preferences shaped individually (Keefe & Padilla, 1987) Ethnic Identity “Socially shared representations of history have been important in creating, maintaining and changing a people's identity.” (Liu & Hilton, 2005) Ethnic Identity Discrimination Ethnic identity may come about as the result both of self-motivation and of forced membership due to prejudice and discrimination (Keefe, 1992) Ethnic Identity A person’s self concept of his or her ethnic affiliation Conceptual frameworks Social Identity Theory Acculturation and cultural conflict Ethnic Identity Formation (Phinney, 1990) Conceptual frameworks Social Identity Theory A “firm sense” of group identification is necessary for an individual’s well-being (Phinney, 1990) Conceptual frameworks Acculturation Theories EID is only meaningful when 2 or more cultures are in contact. Usually studies an individual’s ties to culture of origin as opposed to dominant culture (Phinney, 1990) Conceptual frameworks Ethnic Identity Formation EID is a process similar to other developmental processes. It may be shaped, for instance, through selfexamination and personal choices. (Phinney, 1990) Components Dreidger (1975) describes 6 dimensions: Endogamy Friendships Language use Parochial education Organizational membership Media use (cited in Smith, 1980) Components Friendship Religious affiliation and practice Structured ethnic social groups Political ideology and activity Area of residence Miscellaneous ethnic/cultural activities and attitudes (Phinney. 1990) Components 1. Self-label or group affiliation, 2. Feelings of belongingness and commitment to a group 3. Shared values and attitudes 4. Ethnic involvement such as language and behavior, values, knowledge of ethnic group history (Persky & Berman, 2005) Measurement 3 approaches Natal Subjective Behavioral (Smith, 1980) Measurement 3 approaches Natal Birth origin of person and progenitors Measurement 3 approaches Subjective What a person considers him/herself to be Measurement 3 approaches Behavioral Practices, language, membership affiliations “Behaviors” Language Values Beliefs Activities Modes of social interaction “Behaviors” Language Language spoken at home Language spoken outside home “Behaviors” Values Filial piety Group harmony “Behaviors” Beliefs Mana Inshalla Manifest destiny “Behaviors” Activities Dance and music Ethnic foods Community organizations “Behaviors” Modes of social interaction Confucian family structure Nuclear family Ohana (extended family) The Burkah Ethnic Identity Migration and cultural interaction “the other” Ethnic Identity “Ethnic identity may be thought of as an aspect of acculturation, in which the concern is with individuals and the focus is on how they relate to their own group as a subgroup of larger society” (Phinney, 1990, p.501) Acculturation Alteration of “identity, values, behavior, and attitudes,” which come about as a result of new cultural contact (Berry, 1990; Liebkind, 1996) Acculturation Ethnic Identity Continuum EID is the degree to which the person is aligned with and participates in the values and behaviors of their ethnic group (Marsella, 2000) Acculturation Berry, (1980, 1984) distinguishes four acculturation strategies : integration, assimilation , separation and marginalization Ethnic Identity Continuum Assimilation a condition in which the individual is subsumed into or identifies solely with the norms and activities of the new host culture. The native cultural paradigm is abandoned in favor of the adopted one (Liebkind, 1996). Ethnic Identity Continuum Assimilation Gordon (1964), states, "The price of such assimilation, however, is the disappearance of the ethnic group as a separate entity and the evaporation of its distinctive values" (p. 81). Ethnic Identity Continuum Integration (Biculturality) the condition wherein an individual is fully integrated and able to function in both the native and adopted cultural milieu (Nguyen et al., 1999). Ethnic Identity Continuum Biculturality Each culture is comfortable enough to the individual that he or she can function with relative ease with those others of the native culture in appropriate moments, and with the host culture at other times. Ethnic Identity Continuum Separation The individual prefers situations and interactions involving only activities and interactions with those from their culture of origin, e.g. within an ethnic enclave. Ethnic Identity Continuum Marginalization (Diffusion) The native paradigm is abandoned, and the new host paradigm is perceived to be unavailable or unacceptable Ethnic Identity Continuum Marginalization (Diffusion) Lee (1988) states, “The greatest threat to identity is not the feeling of belonging to two cultures but the feeling of belonging to none.” Other issues “Host” culture Where societal norms diverge sharply from those of a non-dominant ethnic group e.g. in terms of roles, hierarchies and obedience behaviors, this can be a “salient stressor.” (Liebkind 1996) Host culture Berry, Kim, Minde, & Mok (1987) observed that a host culture which tolerates multiculturality may result in less stress for immigrants than an assimilationist one The Generation Gap In the eventuality that children of the immigrants adapt to the host culture, a new problem may arise in the form of a cultural schism that occurs between parents and children (Miller & Rasco, 2004; Nguyen et al., 1999) The Generation Gap Of particular relevance are norms about independence, respect for elders, and contribution to collective well-being of an extended family unit. (Miller & Rasco, 2004; Nguyen et al., 1999) Gender Research varies as to whether females or males have or maintain stronger links to culture of origin. (Phinney, 1990) Gender Southeast Asian women in the US frequently are more employable than men due to language skills or job availability. This completely changes familial dynamics in gender roles. (Gerber et. al., 1999, Denmark, Eisenberg, Heitner, & Holder, 2003) Effects Societal: inter-ethnic conflicts (e.g. Eckblad et. al., 1994). Individual: ‘pathological’ outcomes, e.g. youths with identity diffusion may be more likely to have diagnosable pathologies, or may be more inclined toward delinquent behaviors. What exactly is ethnic identity? Is ethnic identity a constant? How can it best be measured? What are the outcomes of various acculturation strategies? What happens in situations with multiple ethnicities in contact? Are there generalizable components of ethnic identity?