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Transcript
Chapter 5
Theoretical Underpinnings for PR
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
PR Theory
• Borrowed from
– Organizational and management theory
– Political theory
– Communication theory
– Persuasion theory
• All have roots in sociology and psychology with
some connection to math, biology and physics
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Four Sociological Theories
• Help us understand how people respond to
mass and specialized communication
– Structural functionalism
– Evolutionary perspective
– Social conflict
– Symbolic interactionism
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Five Psychological
Approaches
• Often used in studies on the effects of mass
communication
– Neurobiological
– Comparative
– Behavioral
– Psychoanalytic
– Cognitive
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Two Persuasion Models
• Help us to understand how people interpret
messages
– Sociocultural paradigm
– Psychodynamic
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Organizational Theory
• Based on general systems theory: parts of
system are interrelated function as a whole that
is greater than the sum of its parts
• Theoretical concept can be found in works of
Hegel
• Cultural approach looks at development, impact
of organization’s culture
• Critical approach examines sources of power
and control in an organization
• Postmodern approach focuses on post 1960s
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Communication and Behavioral
Theory
• Behavioral models, theories replacing communication
models and theories as core underpinning of PR
• Behavioral models suggest PR is social science
• Behavioral models suggest PR communication must
focus on direct, personal and not mass appeals
• Behavioral models shift objective and focus away from
communication model’s emphasis on creating or
retaining awareness to creating and retaining a
behavioral response
• Behavioral models really asymmetrical even though PR
“best practices” are symmetrical
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Symmetrical Behavioral Model
• Gauge existing levels of awareness
• Investigate responses in attempt to create, raise
or sustain awareness
• Measure latent readiness to act
• Monitor responses to triggering event
• Evaluate behavior to determine why particular
action was taken
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Winning People Over
• Three basic ways to get people to do what
you want:
– Power: use authority, implied or overt
threat of compulsion
– Patronage: as crude as bribery, as
delicate as celebrity endorsement
– Persuasion: using communication to win
people over
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Steps in Persuasion Process
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•
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Presenting
Attending
Comprehending
Yielding
Retaining
Acting
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
PR and Persuasion
• Frequently used to change opinions
• Most critical factor in opinion change is
information or the lack thereof
• Critical how information is presented or
withheld
• Access to information and selective use of it
combines tools of power and persuasion
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Personal Persuaders
• Organizations and significant others who
exercise leverage over others
• Involves recognition and acceptance of
their authority
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Impersonal Persuaders
• Less potent and influential than personal
persuaders
• Mass media editorials and advertisements
• Information disseminated by educational
and government institutions
• Content of entertainment
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Framing
• Sometimes attributed to art
• Definitions abound
• Agreement focuses on three elements: selection,
emphasis, connection of information to lead
readers/viewers to a particular conclusion
• PR practitioners frame issues
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Opinion Makers and News
Managers
• May be someone who creates an event that
becomes news when it happens and is
covered
• May be someone who focuses media
attention on an event that might be
otherwise overlooked
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Propaganda and Persuasion
Appeals
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•
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•
•
•
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•
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Name calling
Glittering generalities
Transfer
Testimonials
Plain folks
Bandwagon
Card stacking
Emotional stereotypes
Illicit silence
Subversive rhetoric
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Propaganda
• Not necessarily negative
• Nothing inherent about propaganda that
prevents it from being used to change
attitudes and behavior constructively
• Propagandists try to teach people what to
think, while educators try to teach people
how to think
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Cantril’s Laws
• Events affect opinion
• Demands for action are a common
response once opinion is formed
• People will become involved out of self
interest
• People seek leaders for issues around
which opinion develops
• Reliability is difficult to assess
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Cialdini’s Self-Persuasion
Elements
• Consistency: once they commit to a position,
people are more likely to perform behaviors
consistent with that position
– Draws on Festinger’s theory of cognitive
dissonance
– Draws on Rokeach’s theory of beliefs,
attitudes and values
• Reciprocity: people are influenced by a sense
that they “owe” or are beholden to others
• Social validation: people are more influenced to
behave in a certain way
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Cialdini’s Self-Persuasion
Elements (cont.)
• Authority: people are more willing to follow
the suggestions of someone considered a
legitimate authority
• Scarcity: people want items and
opportunities that are viewed as scarce or
dwindling
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Earl Newsom’s Persuasion
Principles
• Identification: people will relate to an idea or
opinion if they see it having a direct effect
on them
• Suggestion of action: people will respond to
ideas that are accompanied by a proposed
action by the sponsor of the idea or if the
recipients themselves propose it
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Earl Newsom’s Persuasion
Principles (cont.)
• Familiarity and trust: people are unwilling to
accept ideas from sources if they don’t trust
or know them
• Clarity: people need to clearly understand
the meaning of an idea before they can be
persuaded to accept it
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Opinion Leaders
• Vocal activists
• Opinion leaders, both mass media and
individuals
• Power leaders: government officials,
legislators, others who have power to take
actions
• Increasingly it is the power leaders who
have the most influence
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Persuasion Strategies
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•
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Stimulus-response
Cognitive
Motivational
Social appeal
Personality appeal
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Impediments to Persuasion
• Cognitive dissonance could occur:
sometimes less social persuasion produces
more attitude change because people feel
they have freely chosen a particular opinion
or behavior
• Truth is personal: much “truth” is
circumstantial, subjective so the same
“truth” may be interpreted differently by
different individuals
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Media Theories
• Lasswell’s Theory: who says what in which
channels to whom with what effect
– Ignores feedback
• Source is the “who”
– Credibility, expertise generally important
– People tend to believe sources that are like
them or who they want to be like
– People also tend to seek authority in sources
– Source characteristics can be negated if a
message lacks quality, plausibility
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Media Theories (cont.)
• Messages are the “what”
– The content has consequences
– So does the way it is presented (telling both
sides, linking the familiar to the unfamiliar)
– Repetition generally increases learning
– Always tell people what they are expected to
think or do
– Present something of value to the public and be
compatible with the public’s mindset
– Each message needs a purpose
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Media Theories (cont.)
– Each message should appeal to some
need or interest in the audience such as
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:
• physical needs
• safety
• love
• self-esteem
• self-actualization
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Media Theories (cont.)
– Each message needs texture: color, design,
movement, sound that appeal to the intended
audience
– Message language must mean the same thing to the
audience as it does to the source and must have
maximum impact on the viewer or listener: no jargon,
maximum clarity, maximum emotional impact
– Messages are increasingly globally accessible,
cultural considerations, different values are
increasingly important
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Media Theories (cont.)
• Media are the channels
– Complexity of message influences choice: print handles
complexity best, video best for simple messages
– Some messages involve their audiences more: computers
interactively involve, TV passively involves
– Media orientation of public most critical factor to consider
in choosing a channel: uses and gratifications research
essential
– Knowing not just who receives the channel but who pays
attention to it and remembers it is important
– Knowing which channels are considered credible also
should be a factor in choosing the right medium
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Media Theories (cont.)
• Receivers are the “to whom”
– Sometimes messages must be adjusted to minimize
differences between the source and receivers
– If messages are “tuned out” they are not really received
– Messages must be encoded into something personally
meaningful to an intended receiver
– Distortions, distractions, noise must be taken into account
– Symbols must be chosen carefully to be sure they have
intended meaning to the receivers
– Receiver stereotypes must be taken into account both in
terms of how they influence encoding and decoding of
messages
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Media Theories (cont.)
• Response to a message is the “with what effect”
– How people respond is a function of anticipation, expectations
and assumptions
– Comprehension and acceptance of messages must occur before
a receiver can fashion a response
– Some receivers will respond to group dynamics in fashioning
their response
– Others will strive to reduce discrepancies or cognitive
dissonance
– Some people take behavior cues from external causes, while
others respond to internal causes
– All opinions, attitudes and actions are affected by family, friends,
informal work groups and formal groups, so no message “works”
in isolation from these influences
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Models of Information Processing
• Information processing is critical in
communication: models that predict behavior
successfully are especially useful in a public
relations communications campaign
• Grunig’s model of publics and how they seek and
process information is significant
• Publics range from active to inactive, and their
behavior ranges from seeking information to just
processing it
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Models of Information Processing
(cont.)
• Individuals are more likely to seek and process
information if they think it will help them solve a
problem and if they are personally involved
• Those who are constrained are less likely to
either seek or process information
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg
Diffusion Process
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•
•
•
•
•
Awareness (presenting)
Information( attending)
Evaluation (comprehending)
Trial (yielding)
Adoption (retaining)
Reinforcement ( retaining)
This is PR 11th Edition
Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg