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Plant
Reproduction
Reproductive Development and Structure
Pollination and Fertilization
Asexual Reproduction
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Plant Reproduction > Reproductive Development and Structure
Reproductive Development and Structure
• Introduction
• Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms
• Sexual Reproduction in Gymnosperms
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Plant Reproduction > Reproductive Development and Structure
Introduction
• Vegetative reproduction is a type of asexual reproduction that results in new plant
individuals without seed or spore production.
• Vegetative reproduction is also utilized by horticulturists to ensure production of
large quantities of valuable plants.
• Plants have flowers that produce seeds through sexual reproduction; seeds are
dispersed to increase propagation of the next generation.
• Seeds are often dispersed by animals via ingestion of the fruits, which surround
the seeds, promoting seed dispersal.
Plants and sexual reproduction
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Plant Reproduction > Reproductive Development and Structure
Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms
• A typical flower has four main parts, or whorls: the calyx (sepals), corolla (petals),
androecium (male reproductive structure), and gynoecium (female reproductive
structure).
• Angiosperms that contain both male and female gametophytes within the same
flower are called complete and are considered to be androgynous or
hermaphroditic.
• Angiosperms that contain only male or only female gametophytes are considered
to be incomplete and are either staminate (contain only male structures) or
carpellate (contain only female structures) flowers.
• Microspores develop in the microsporangium and form mature pollen grains (male
Structures of the flower
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gametophytes), which are then used to fertilize female gametophytes.
• During megasporogenesis, four megaspores are produced with one surviving;
during megagametogenesism, the surviving megaspore undergoes mitosis to
form an embryo sac (female gametophyte).
• The sperm, guided by the synergid cells, migrates to the ovary to complete
fertilization; the diploid zygote develops into the embryo, while the fertilized ovule
forms the other tissues of the seed.
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Plant Reproduction > Reproductive Development and Structure
Sexual Reproduction in Gymnosperms
• In gymnosperms, the cones contain a leafy green sporophyte and male and
female gametophytes in the cones; female cones are bigger than male cones and
are located higher up in the tree.
• A male cone contains microsporophylls where male gametophytes (pollen) are
produced and are later carried by wind to female gametophytes.
• The megaspore mother cell in the female cone divides by meiosis to produce four
haploid megaspores; one of the megaspores divides to form the female
gametophyte.
• The male gametophyte lands on the female cone, forming a pollen tube through
which the generative cell travels to meet the female gametophyte.
Conifer life cycle
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• One of the two sperm cells released by the generative cell fuses with the egg,
forming a diploid zygote that divides to form the embryo.
• Unlike angiosperms, ovaries are absent in gymnosperms, double fertilization does
not take place, male and female gametophytes are present on cones rather than
flowers, and wind (not animals) drives pollination.
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Plant Reproduction > Pollination and Fertilization
Pollination and Fertilization
• Introduction
• Pollination by Insects
• Pollination by Bats, Birds, Wind, and Water
• Double Fertilization
• Development of the Seed
• Development of Fruit and Fruit Types
• Fruit and Seed Dispersal
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Plant Reproduction > Pollination and Fertilization
Introduction
• Pollination, the transfer of pollen from flower-to-flower in angiosperms or cone-tocone in gymnosperms, takes place through self-pollination or cross-pollination.
• Cross-pollination is the most advantageous of the two types of pollination since it
provides species with greater genetic diversity.
• Maturation of pollen and ovaries at different times and heterostyly are methods
plants have developed to avoid self-pollination.
• The placement of male and female flowers on separate plants or different parts of
the plant are also barriers to self-pollination.
Teosinte
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Plant Reproduction > Pollination and Fertilization
Pollination by Insects
• Adaptations such as bright colors, strong fragrances, special shapes, and nectar
guides are used to attract suitable pollinators.
• Important insect pollinators include bees, flies, wasps, butterflies, and moths.
• Bees and butterflies are attracted to brightly-colored flowers that have a strong
scent and are open during the day, whereas moths are attracted to white flowers
that are open at night.
• Flies are attracted to dull brown and purple flowers that have an odor of decaying
meat.
• Nectar guides, which are only visible to certain insects, facilitate pollination by
guiding bees to the pollen at the center of flowers.
Pollination by insects
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• Insects and flowers both benefit from their specialized symbiotic relationships;
plants are pollinated while insects obtain valuable sources of food.
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Plant Reproduction > Pollination and Fertilization
Pollination by Bats, Birds, Wind, and Water
• Flowers that are pollinated by bats bloom at night, tending to be large, widemouthed, and pale-colored; they may also give off strong scents.
• Flowers that are pollinated by small birds usually have curved, tubular shapes;
birds carry the pollen off on their heads and neck to the next flower they visit.
• Wind-pollinated flowers do not produce scents or nectar; instead, they tend to
have small or no petals and to produce large amounts of lightweight pollen.
• Some species of flowers release pollen that can float on water; pollination occurs
when the pollen reaches another plant of the same species.
• Some flowers deceive pollinators through food or sexual deception; the pollinators
become attracted to the flowers with false promises of food and mating
Pollination by birds
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opportunities.
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Plant Reproduction > Pollination and Fertilization
Double Fertilization
• Double fertilization involves two sperm cells; one fertilizes the egg cell to form the
zygote, while the other fuses with the two polar nuclei that form the endosperm.
• After fertilization, the fertilized ovule forms the seed while the tissues of the ovary
become the fruit.
• In the first stage of embryonic development, the zygote divides to form two cells;
one will develop into a suspensor, while the other gives rise to a proembryo.
• In the second stage of embryonic development (in eudicots), the developing
embryo has a heart shape due to the presence of cotyledons.
• As the embryo grows, it begins to bend as it fills the seed; at this point, the seed
is ready for dispersal.
Double fertilization
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Plant Reproduction > Pollination and Fertilization
Development of the Seed
• In angiosperms, the process of seed production begins with double fertilization
while in gymnosperms it does not.
• In both monocots and dicots, food reserves are stored in the endosperm;
however, in non-endospermic dicots, the cotyledons act as the storage.
• In a seed, the embryo consists of three main parts: the plumule, the radicle, and
the hypocotyl.
• In dicots, the hypocotyls extend above ground, giving rise to the stem of the plant,
while in monocots, they remain below ground.
• In dicot seeds, the radicle grows downwards to form the tap root while lateral
roots branch off to all sides, producing a dicot tap root system; in contrast, the
Monocots and dicots
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end of germination in monocot seeds is marked by the production of a fibrous root
system where adventitious roots emerge from the stem.
• Seed germination is dependent on seed size and whether or not favorable
conditions are present.
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Plant Reproduction > Pollination and Fertilization
Development of Fruit and Fruit Types
• Fruits can be classified as simple, aggregate, multiple, or accessory.
• Simple fruits develop from a single carpel or fused carpels of a single ovary, while
aggregate fruits develop from more than one carpel found on the same flower.
• Multiple fruits develop from a cluster of flowers, while accessory fruits do not
develop from an ovary, but from other parts of a plant.
• The main parts of a fruit include the exocarp (skin), the mesocarp (middle part),
and the endocarp (inner part); these three parts make up the pericarp.
• Dehiscent fruits promptly release their seeds, while indehiscent fruits rely on
decay to release their seeds.
Types of fruit
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Plant Reproduction > Pollination and Fertilization
Fruit and Seed Dispersal
• The means by which seeds are dispersed depend on a seed's structure,
composition, and size.
• Seeds dispersed by water are found in light and buoyant fruits, while those
dispersed by wind may have specialized wing-like appendages.
• Animals can disperse seeds by excreting or burying them; other fruits have
structures, such as hooks, that attach themselves to animals' fur.
• Humans also play a role as dispersers by moving fruit to new places and
discarding the inedible portions containing the seeds.
• Some seeds have the ability to remain dormant and germinate when favorable
conditions arise.
Wind dispersal
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Plant Reproduction > Asexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
• Asexual Reproduction
• Natural and Artificial Methods of Asexual Reproduction
• Plant Life Spans
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Plant Reproduction > Asexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
• Asexual reproduction produces individuals that are genetically identical to the
parent plant.
• Roots such as corms, stem tubers, rhizomes, and stolon undergo vegetative
reproduction.
• Some plants can produce seeds without fertilization via apomixis where the ovule
or ovary gives rise to new seeds.
• Advantages of asexual reproduction include an increased rate of maturity and a
sturdier adult plant.
• Asexual reproduction can take place by natural or artificial means.
Roots
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Plant Reproduction > Asexual Reproduction
Natural and Artificial Methods of Asexual Reproduction
• In natural asexual reproduction, roots can give rise to new plants, or plants can
propagate using budding or cutting.
• In grafting, part of a plant is attached to the root system of another plant; the two
unite to form a new plant containing the roots of one and the stem and leaf
structure of the other.
• Cutting is the process in which the stem of a plant is placed in moist soil or water
to generate a new root system.
• In layering, part of the plant's stem is bent down and covered with soil; this stem
can generate a new root system and, therefore, an entirely new plant.
• Micropropagation is the process in which part of a plant is placed in plant culture
Runners: asexual reproduction
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medium and provided with all the hormones and nutrients it needs in order to
generate new plants.
• When part of a plant is placed in plant culture medium and provided with all the
hormones and nutrients it needs, it can generate new plants; this is known as
micropropagation.
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Plant Reproduction > Asexual Reproduction
Plant Life Spans
• The life span of a plant is the length of time it takes from the beginning of
development until death, while the life cycle is the series of stages between the
germination of the seed until the plant produces its own seeds.
• Annuals complete their life cycle in one season; biennials complete their life cycle
in two seasons; and perennials complete their life cycle in more than two
seasons.
• Monocarpic plants flower only once in their lifetime, while polycarpic plants flower
more than once.
• Plant survival depends on changing environmental conditions, drought, cold, and
Plant life spans
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competition.
• Senescence refers to aging of the plant, during which components of the plant
cells are broken down and used to support the growth of other plant tissues.
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Appendix
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Plant Reproduction
Key terms
• accessory fruit a fruit not derived from the ovary but from another part of the flower
• androecium the set of a flower's stamens (male reproductive organs)
• annual a plant which naturally germinates, flowers, and dies in one year
• apomixis process of reproduction in which plants produce seeds without fertilization
• biennial a plant that requires two years to complete its life cycle
• coleoptile a pointed sheath that protects the emerging shoot in monocotyledons such as oats and grasses
• cross-pollination fertilization by the transfer of pollen from an anther of one plant to a stigma of another
• cutting placing part of a stem containing nodes or internodes in water or moist soil in order to produce new plants
• dispersal the movement of a few members of a species to a new geographical area, resulting in differentiation of the original
group into new varieties or species
• double fertilization a complex fertilization mechanism that has evolved in flowering plants; involves the joining of a female
gametophyte with two male gametes (sperm)
• endocarp the inner part of the fruit
• exocarp the outermost covering of the pericarp of fruits; the skin
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Plant Reproduction
• food deception a trickery method employed by some species of orchids in which only bright colors and perfume are offered to
their pollinators with no food reward
• grafting process of attaching part of a stem from one plant onto the root of another plant
• gynoecium the set of a flower's pistils (female reproductive organs)
• heterostyly the condition of having unequal male (anther) and female (stigma) reproductive organs
• hypocotyl in plants with seeds, the portion of the embryo or seedling between the root and cotyledons
• layering a method of plant propagation in which a bent stem is covered with soil in order to generate new roots
• megasporophyll bears megasporangium, which produces megaspores that divide into the female gametophyte
• mesocarp middle part of the fruit
• micropropagation practice of rapidly multiplying plant material to produce a large number of progeny plants using plant tissue
culture methods
• microsporophyll a leaflike organ that bears microsporangium, which produces microspores that divide into the male
gametophyte (pollen)
• monocarpic a plant that flowers and bears fruit only once before dying
• nectar guide markings or patterns seen in flowers of some angiosperm species that guide pollinators to nectar or pollen
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Plant Reproduction
• perennial a plant that is active throughout the year or survives for more than two growing seasons
• perianth the calyx (sepals) and the corolla (petals)
• plumule consisting of the apical meristem and the first true leaves of the young plant
• pollination the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma that is carried out by insects, birds, bats, and the wind
• polycarpic bearing fruit repeatedly, or year after year
• proembryo a cluster of cells in the ovule of a fertilized flowering plant that has not yet formed into an embryo
• radicle the rudimentary shoot of a plant that supports the cotyledons in the seed and from which the root is developed
downward; the root of the embryo
• seed dormancy a seed with the ability to delay germination and propagation of the species until suitable conditions are found
• self-pollination pollination of a flower by its own pollen in a flower that has both stamens and a pistil
• senescence aging of a plant; accumulated damage to macromolecules, cells, tissues, and organs with the passage of time
• simple fruit fruit that develops from a single carpel or fused carpels of a single ovary
• stolon a shoot that grows along the ground and produces roots at its nodes; a runner
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Plant Reproduction
• suspensor found in plant zygotes in angiosperms; connects the endosperm to the embryo and provides a route for nutrition
from the mother plant to the growing embryo
• testa the seed coat
• vegetative reproduction a form of asexual reproduction in plants
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Plant Reproduction
Plants and sexual reproduction
Plants that reproduce sexually often achieve fertilization with the help of pollinators such as (a) bees, (b) birds, and (c) butterflies.
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Plant Reproduction
Structures of the flower
The four main parts of the flower are the calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynoecium.The androecium is the sum of all the male reproductive organs, and
the gynoecium is the sum of the female reproductive organs.
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Plant Reproduction
Pollen grain structure
Pollen develops from the microspore mother cells.The mature pollen grain is composed of two cells: the pollen tube cell and the generative cell, which is
inside the tube cell.The pollen grain has two coverings: an inner layer (intine) and an outer layer (exine).The inset scanning electron micrograph shows
<em>Arabidopsis lyrata</em> pollen grains.
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Plant Reproduction
Embryo sac
As shown in this diagram of the embryo sac in angiosperms, the ovule is covered by integuments and has an opening called a micropyle.Inside the
embryo sac are three antipodal cells, two synergids, a central cell, and the egg cell.
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Plant Reproduction
Superior and inferior flowers
The (a) lily is a superior flower, which has the ovary above the other flower parts.(b) Fuchsia is an inferior flower, which has the ovary beneath other
flower parts.
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Plant Reproduction
Staminate and carpellate flowers
The corn plant has both staminate (male) and carpellate (female) flowers.Staminate flowers, which are clustered in the tassel at the tip of the stem,
produce pollen grains.Carpellate flower are clustered in the immature ears.Each strand of silk is a stigma.The corn kernels are seeds that develop on the
ear after fertilization.Also shown is the lower stem and root.
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Plant Reproduction
Microsporangium
Shown is (a) a cross section of an anther at two developmental stages.The immature anther (top) contains four microsporangia, or pollen sacs.Each
microsporangium contains hundreds of microspore mother cells that will each give rise to four pollen grains.The tapetum supports the development and
maturation of the pollen grains.Upon maturation of the pollen (bottom), the pollen sac walls split open and the pollen grains (male gametophytes) are
released.(b) In these scanning electron micrographs, pollen sacs are ready to burst, releasing their grains.
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Plant Reproduction
Male and female gametophytes
These series of micrographs shows male and female gymnosperm gametophytes.(a) This male cone, shown in cross section, has approximately 20
microsporophylls, each of which produces hundreds of male gametophytes (pollen grains).(b) Pollen grains are visible in this single microsporophyll.(c)
This micrograph shows an individual pollen grain.(d) This cross section of a female cone shows portions of about 15 megasporophylls.(e) The ovule can
be seen in this single megasporophyll.(f) Within this single ovule are the megaspore mother cell (MMC), micropyle, and a pollen grain.
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Plant Reproduction
Conifer life cycle
This image shows the life cycle of a conifer.Pollen from male cones blows up into upper branches, where it fertilizes female cones.Examples are shown
for female and male cones.
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Plant Reproduction
Pollination by insects
Insects, such as bees, are important agents of pollination.Bees are probably the most important species of pollinators for commercial and garden plant
species.
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Plant Reproduction
Moths as pollinators
A corn earworm (a moth) sips nectar from a night-blooming Gaura plant.Both the moth and plant benefit from each other as they have formed a
symbiotic relationship; the plant is pollinated while the moth is able to obtain food.
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Plant Reproduction
Pollination by birds
Hummingbirds have adaptations that allow them to reach the nectar of certain tubular flowers, thereby, aiding them in the process of pollination.
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Plant Reproduction
Wind pollination
These male (a) and female (b) catkins from the goat willow tree (<em>Salix caprea</em>) have structures that are light and feathery to better disperse
and catch the wind-blown pollen.
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Plant Reproduction
Pollination by deception in orchids
Certain orchids use food deception or sexual deception to attract pollinators.Shown here is a bee orchid (<em>Ophrys apifera</em>).
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Plant Reproduction
Double fertilization
In angiosperms, one sperm fertilizes the egg to form the 2n zygote, while the other sperm fuses with two polar nuclei to form the 3n endosperm.This is
called a double fertilization.
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Plant Reproduction
Embryo development
Shown are the stages of embryo development in the ovule of a shepherd's purse (<em>Capsella bursa</em>).After fertilization, the zygote divides to
form an upper terminal cell and a lower basal cell.(a) In the first stage of development, the terminal cell divides, forming a globular pro-embryo.The basal
cell also divides, giving rise to the suspensor.(b) In the second stage, the developing embryo has a heart shape due to the presence of cotyledons.(c) In
the third stage, the growing embryo is crowded and begins to bend.(d) Eventually, it completely fills the seed.
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Plant Reproduction
Monocot seeds
As this monocot grass seed germinates, the primary root, or radicle, emerges first, followed by the primary shoot, or coleoptile, and the adventitious
roots.
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Plant Reproduction
Monocots and dicots
The structures of dicot and monocot seeds are shown.Dicots (left) have two cotyledons.Monocots, such as corn (right), have one cotyledon, called the
scutellum, which channels nutrition to the growing embryo.Both monocot and dicot embryos have a plumule that forms the leaves, a hypocotyl that forms
the stem, and a radicle that forms the root.The embryonic axis comprises everything between the plumule and the radicle, not including the cotyledon(s).
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Plant Reproduction
Types of fruit
There are four main types of fruits.Simple fruits, such as these nuts, are derived from a single ovary.Aggregate fruits, like raspberries, form from many
carpels that fuse together.Multiple fruits, such as pineapple, form from a cluster of flowers called an inflorescence.Accessory fruits, like apples, are
formed from a part of the plant other than the ovary.
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Plant Reproduction
Wind dispersal
Wind is used as a form of dispersal by lightweight seeds, such as those found on dandelions.
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Plant Reproduction
Apomyxis
Vegetative apomixis in Poa bulbosa; in this type of asexual reproduction, the flowers are replaced by bubils or other vegetative structures which
frequently germinate while still on the plant.
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Plant Reproduction
Vegetative Reproduction
A bulb of Muscari has reproduced vegetatively underground to make two bulbs, each of which produces a flower stem.
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Plant Reproduction
Roots
Different types of stems allow for asexual reproduction.(a) The corm of a garlic plant looks similar to (b) a tulip bulb, but the corm is solid tissue, while the
bulb consists of layers of modified leaves that surround an underground stem.Both corms and bulbs can self-propagate, giving rise to new plants.(c)
Ginger forms masses of stems called rhizomes that can give rise to multiple plants.(d) Potato plants form fleshy stem tubers.Each eye in the stem tuber
can give rise to a new plant.(e) Strawberry plants form stolons: stems that grow at the soil surface or just below ground and can give rise to new plants
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Plant Reproduction
Runners: asexual reproduction
A stolon, or runner, is a stem that runs along the ground.At the nodes, it forms adventitious roots and buds that grow into a new plant.
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Plant Reproduction
Grafting
Grafting is an artificial method of asexual reproduction used to produce plants combining favorable stem characteristics with favorable root
characteristics.The stem of the plant to be grafted is known as the scion, and the root is called the stock.
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Plant Reproduction
Layering
In layering, a part of the stem is buried so that it forms a new plant.
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Plant Reproduction
Plant senescence
The autumn color of these Oregon Grape leaves is an example of programmed plant senescence.
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Plant Reproduction
Plant life spans
The bristlecone pine, shown here in the Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest in the White Mountains of eastern California, has been known to live for 4,500
years.
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Plant Reproduction
Teosinte
Teosinte (left) is the ancestor of modern corn (far-right).Although they are morphologically dissimilar, genetically they are not so different.
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Plant Reproduction
Pollinators
To maximize their avoidance of self-pollination, plants have evolved relationships with animals, such as bees, to ensure cross-pollination between
members of the same species.
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following statements describes sexual reproduction?
A) The production of new plants without the production of seeds
B) The production of new plants without the production of spores
C) The production of new plants by the production of seeds
D) The production of new plants without the production of fruit
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following statements describes sexual reproduction?
A) The production of new plants without the production of seeds
B) The production of new plants without the production of spores
C) The production of new plants by the production of seeds
D) The production of new plants without the production of fruit
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following is associated with development of
microspores?
A) The megagametophyte where the microscopore mother cell divides to
produces four microspores
B) The synergid cells which help form the pollen tube that is used for
microspore development
C) The micropyle which produces the microspore mother cell that divides
to produce microspores
D) The microsporangium where the microspore mother cell divides to
produce four microspores
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following is associated with development of
microspores?
A) The megagametophyte where the microscopore mother cell divides to
produces four microspores
B) The synergid cells which help form the pollen tube that is used for
microspore development
C) The micropyle which produces the microspore mother cell that divides
to produce microspores
D) The microsporangium where the microspore mother cell divides to
produce four microspores
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Plant Reproduction
Which component of the flower, associated with the male
gametophyte, is necessary to provide nutrition to developing
microspores?
A) The pollen tube cells
B) The tapetum cells
C) The generative cells
D) The synergid cell
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Plant Reproduction
Which component of the flower, associated with the male
gametophyte, is necessary to provide nutrition to developing
microspores?
A) The pollen tube cells
B) The tapetum cells
C) The generative cells
D) The synergid cell
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following statements describes sexual reproduction
in gymnosperms?
A) The female gametophyte is enclosed in an ovary.
B) Double fertilization is an essential part of the life cycle.
C) Wind carries pollen to the female gametophyte.
D) Fruit formation takes places after fertilization.
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following statements describes sexual reproduction
in gymnosperms?
A) The female gametophyte is enclosed in an ovary.
B) Double fertilization is an essential part of the life cycle.
C) Wind carries pollen to the female gametophyte.
D) Fruit formation takes places after fertilization.
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following is a method plants have developed to avoid
self-pollination?
A) delaying the release of pollen
B) discouraging insects from transferring pollen
C) all of these answers
D) maturation of the pollen and ovary at different times
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following is a method plants have developed to avoid
self-pollination?
A) delaying the release of pollen
B) discouraging insects from transferring pollen
C) all of these answers
D) maturation of the pollen and ovary at different times
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Plant Reproduction
Self-pollination involves the pollination of a flower by its own
pollen, while in cross-pollination:
A) flowers from the same plant that grow at different times pollinate
themselves.
B) pollen is transferred from one flower to a different individual of the
same species.
C) genetic diversity is limited since gametes are derived from different
plants.
D) can only be achieved by plants that produce cones.
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Plant Reproduction
Self-pollination involves the pollination of a flower by its own
pollen, while in cross-pollination:
A) flowers from the same plant that grow at different times pollinate
themselves.
B) pollen is transferred from one flower to a different individual of the
same species.
C) genetic diversity is limited since gametes are derived from different
plants.
D) can only be achieved by plants that produce cones.
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following is a method of pollination?
A) Nectar guides release pollen into the air, which later fall on new plants.
B) Pollen that sticks to the hairs of bees is transferred to other plants.
C) Flies deposit pollen on the fur of animals that travel long distances.
D) all of these answers
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following is a method of pollination?
A) Nectar guides release pollen into the air, which later fall on new plants.
B) Pollen that sticks to the hairs of bees is transferred to other plants.
C) Flies deposit pollen on the fur of animals that travel long distances.
D) all of these answers
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Plant Reproduction
Coevolution between pollinators and flowers can be described by:
A) the monotonous adaptations shared by each and every flower
B) the lack of variable pollinators available to pollinate night-flowering
plants
C) the dependency of flowers on insects as their sole pollinators
D) the specialized adaptations that flowers have developed to attract
suitable pollinators
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Plant Reproduction
Coevolution between pollinators and flowers can be described by:
A) the monotonous adaptations shared by each and every flower
B) the lack of variable pollinators available to pollinate night-flowering
plants
C) the dependency of flowers on insects as their sole pollinators
D) the specialized adaptations that flowers have developed to attract
suitable pollinators
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following describes the difference between
pollination by birds and pollination by bats?
A) Flowers pollinated by birds are pale or white, while flowers pollinated
by bats are colorful.
B) Flowers pollinated by birds are flat, while flowers pollinated by bats are
tubular.
C) Flowers pollinated by birds have a fruity scent, while flowers pollinated
by bats are unscented.
D) Flowers pollinated by birds open during the day, while flowers
pollinated by bats open at night.
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following describes the difference between
pollination by birds and pollination by bats?
A) Flowers pollinated by birds are pale or white, while flowers pollinated
by bats are colorful.
B) Flowers pollinated by birds are flat, while flowers pollinated by bats are
tubular.
C) Flowers pollinated by birds have a fruity scent, while flowers pollinated
by bats are unscented.
D) Flowers pollinated by birds open during the day, while flowers
pollinated by bats open at night.
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Plant Reproduction
The main result of double fertilization is:
A) the development of a zygote and endosperm.
B) the development of synergids and a zygote.
C) the development of a proembryo in gymnosperms.
D) the development of fruit and a new generation of flowers.
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Plant Reproduction
The main result of double fertilization is:
A) the development of a zygote and endosperm.
B) the development of synergids and a zygote.
C) the development of a proembryo in gymnosperms.
D) the development of fruit and a new generation of flowers.
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following must occur for double fertilization to begin?
A) The generative cell travels through the pollen tube.
B) The generative cell splits into four cells.
C) The pollen tube enters the generative cell.
D) Germination of the pollen tube requires water and carbon dioxide.
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following must occur for double fertilization to begin?
A) The generative cell travels through the pollen tube.
B) The generative cell splits into four cells.
C) The pollen tube enters the generative cell.
D) Germination of the pollen tube requires water and carbon dioxide.
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Plant Reproduction
Seed dormancy can be described as:
A) a period of high metabolic activity, which triggers a delay in
germination.
B) the ability for a seed to delay germination until favorable conditions are
present
C) the triggering of inactivity once a seed has already started germination
D) the emergence of germination after a seed has been initially fertilized
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Plant Reproduction
Seed dormancy can be described as:
A) a period of high metabolic activity, which triggers a delay in
germination.
B) the ability for a seed to delay germination until favorable conditions are
present
C) the triggering of inactivity once a seed has already started germination
D) the emergence of germination after a seed has been initially fertilized
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Plant Reproduction
The main function of the endosperm is:
A) cotyledon storage
B) sperm storage
C) undeveloped embryo storage
D) food storage
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Plant Reproduction
The main function of the endosperm is:
A) cotyledon storage
B) sperm storage
C) undeveloped embryo storage
D) food storage
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Plant Reproduction
Which part of a seed is responsible for the development of the
root?
A) radicle
B) epicotyl
C) tegmen
D) coleoptile
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Plant Reproduction
Which part of a seed is responsible for the development of the
root?
A) radicle
B) epicotyl
C) tegmen
D) coleoptile
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Plant Reproduction
In order for seed production to occur:
A) in gymnosperms, the process begins with a two sperm nucleus.
B) in angiosperms, the process begins with double fertilization.
C) both angiosperms and gymnosperms undergo double fertilization.
D) both angiosperms undergo the formation of a cone around the seeds.
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Plant Reproduction
In order for seed production to occur:
A) in gymnosperms, the process begins with a two sperm nucleus.
B) in angiosperms, the process begins with double fertilization.
C) both angiosperms and gymnosperms undergo double fertilization.
D) both angiosperms undergo the formation of a cone around the seeds.
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following must occur for a flower to develop into a
fruit?
A) the ovary must ripen
B) flowers must be fertilized
C) flowers must fuse together
D) all of these answers
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following must occur for a flower to develop into a
fruit?
A) the ovary must ripen
B) flowers must be fertilized
C) flowers must fuse together
D) all of these answers
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following statements about the dispersal of fruit and
seeds is true?
A) Seeds dispersed by water are contained in large, heavy fruits.
B) Fruits are unable to disperse seeds on their own.
C) Once seeds are excreted, they become useless and disfunctional.
D) Seeds with specialized winged appendages are usually dispersed by
wind.
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following statements about the dispersal of fruit and
seeds is true?
A) Seeds dispersed by water are contained in large, heavy fruits.
B) Fruits are unable to disperse seeds on their own.
C) Once seeds are excreted, they become useless and disfunctional.
D) Seeds with specialized winged appendages are usually dispersed by
wind.
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following describes the difference between apomixis
and vegetative reproduction?
A) Vegetative reproduction involves the production of seeds and apomixis
does not.
B) Vegetative reproduction involves fertilization and apomixis does not.
C) Apomixis results in clones of the parent, and vegetative reproduction
results in diverse offspring.
D) Apomixis involves the production of seeds and vegetative reproduction
does not.
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following describes the difference between apomixis
and vegetative reproduction?
A) Vegetative reproduction involves the production of seeds and apomixis
does not.
B) Vegetative reproduction involves fertilization and apomixis does not.
C) Apomixis results in clones of the parent, and vegetative reproduction
results in diverse offspring.
D) Apomixis involves the production of seeds and vegetative reproduction
does not.
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following describes the artificial method of cutting?
A) new plants arise from adventitious roots or runners
B) part of a plant is sterilized and placed in a culture medium
C) part of the stem containing nodes is placed in moist soil or water
D) the stem from one plant is attached to the root of another plant
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following describes the artificial method of cutting?
A) new plants arise from adventitious roots or runners
B) part of a plant is sterilized and placed in a culture medium
C) part of the stem containing nodes is placed in moist soil or water
D) the stem from one plant is attached to the root of another plant
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following is a natural method of asexual
reproduction?
A) grafting
B) micropropagation
C) budding
D) layering
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following is a natural method of asexual
reproduction?
A) grafting
B) micropropagation
C) budding
D) layering
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Plant Reproduction
A plant that flowers only once in its lifetime is called
____________.
A) polycarpic
B) annual
C) biennial
D) monocarpic
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Plant Reproduction
A plant that flowers only once in its lifetime is called
____________.
A) polycarpic
B) annual
C) biennial
D) monocarpic
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following characteristics describes the process of
plant aging?
A) breakdown of abscissic acid
B) breakdown of chloroplasts
C) photosynthetic efficiency
D) application of cytokinins
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following characteristics describes the process of
plant aging?
A) breakdown of abscissic acid
B) breakdown of chloroplasts
C) photosynthetic efficiency
D) application of cytokinins
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following describes a plant that flowers more than
once in its lifetime and completes its life cycle in two seasons?
A) monocarpic and biennial
B) polycarpic and biennial
C) monocarpic and annual
D) polycarpic and perennial
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Plant Reproduction
Which of the following describes a plant that flowers more than
once in its lifetime and completes its life cycle in two seasons?
A) monocarpic and biennial
B) polycarpic and biennial
C) monocarpic and annual
D) polycarpic and perennial
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Plant Reproduction
A plant that completes its life cycle in two or more seasons is
called a _______________.
A) annual
B) biennial
C) perennial
D) polycarpic
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Plant Reproduction
A plant that completes its life cycle in two or more seasons is
called a _______________.
A) annual
B) biennial
C) perennial
D) polycarpic
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Plant Reproduction
Attribution
• Wikipedia. "vegetative reproduction." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/vegetative%20reproduction
• Wikibooks. "Botany/Plant reproduction." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Botany/Plant_reproduction
• Connexions. "Introduction." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44720/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Connexions. "Reproductive Development and Structure." CC BY 3.0
http://cnx.org/content/m44722/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Wiktionary. "gynoecium." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gynoecium
• Wiktionary. "androecium." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/androecium
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//biology/definition/perianth
• Connexions. "Reproductive Development and Structure." CC BY 3.0
http://cnx.org/content/m44722/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Connexions. "Reproductive Development and Structure." CC BY 3.0
http://cnx.org/content/m44722/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Wiktionary. "microsporophyll." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/microsporophyll
• Wiktionary. "megasporophyll." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/megasporophyll
• Wikipedia. "nectar guide." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/nectar%20guide
• Connexions. "Pollination and Fertilization." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44723/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Connexions. "Pollination and Fertilization." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44723/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//biology/definition/food-deception
• Wikipedia. "double fertilization." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/double%20fertilization
• Connexions. "Pollination and Fertilization." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44723/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
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Plant Reproduction
• Wiktionary. "proembryo." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/proembryo
• Wikipedia. "suspensor." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/suspensor
• Connexions. "Pollination and Fertilization." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44723/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Wikipedia. "Seed." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed#Seed_production
• Wiktionary. "testa." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/testa
• Wiktionary. "coleoptile." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/coleoptile
• Wikipedia. "plumule." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/plumule
• Wiktionary. "hypocotyl." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hypocotyl
• Wiktionary. "radicle." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/radicle
• Connexions. "Pollination and Fertilization." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44723/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//biology/definition/simple-fruit
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//biology/definition/endocarp
• Wiktionary. "exocarp." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/exocarp
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//biology/definition/mesocarp
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//biology/definition/accessory-fruit
• Connexions. "Pollination and Fertilization." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44723/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//biology/definition/seed-dormancy
• Wiktionary. "dispersal." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dispersal
• Connexions. "Asexual Reproduction." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44725/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
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Plant Reproduction
• Wikipedia. "Plant reproduction." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_reproduction
• Wikibooks. "Botany/Plant reproduction." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Botany/Plant_reproduction
• Wiktionary. "stolon." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stolon
• Wiktionary. "apomixis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/apomixis
• Connexions. "Asexual Reproduction." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44725/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Connexions. "Asexual Reproduction." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44725/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Wikipedia. "Plant reproduction." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_reproduction
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//biology/definition/grafting
• Wiktionary. "layering." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/layering
• Wiktionary. "cutting." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cutting
• Wikipedia. "micropropagation." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/micropropagation
• Connexions. "Asexual Reproduction." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44725/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Wiktionary. "senescence." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/senescence
• Wiktionary. "polycarpic." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/polycarpic
• Wiktionary. "monocarpic." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/monocarpic
• Wiktionary. "perennial." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/perennial
• Wiktionary. "biennial." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/biennial
• Wiktionary. "annual." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/annual
• Connexions. "Pollination and Fertilization." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44723/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com
Plant Reproduction
• Connexions. "Pollination and Fertilization." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44723/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Connexions. "Pollination and Fertilization." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44723/latest/?collection=col11448/latest
• Wiktionary. "heterostyly." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/heterostyly
• Wiktionary. "cross-pollination." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cross-pollination
• Wiktionary. "self-pollination." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/self-pollination
• Wiktionary. "pollination." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pollination
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