Download Developmental Psy

Child Development
FROM CONCEPTION THROUGH
THE FIRST YEAR
• Three stages of prenatal development
– Germinal stage
• 0-14 days the fertilized egg (zygote) divides and attaches to the
uterine wall
• Outside becomes placenta, inner part becomes embryo.
– Embryonic stage after implantation
• About 2 weeks to eighth week the embryo develops.
• Organs and limbs develop & testosterone is secreted in males.
– Fetal stage
• After eighth week, further development of organs and systems.
• Marked increase in nervous system development and brain weight.
Prenatal development
Chromosomal Aberrations
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Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
Turner Syndrome (only 1 X Chromosome)
Fragile X Syndrome (mutation on X Chr)
Klinfelter Syndrome (XXY)
Down Syndrome
• Individuals may have some or all of the following characteristics:
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Oblique eye fissures
Poor muscle tone
Flat nasal bridge
Single palmar fold
Protruding tongue
Short neck
White spots on the iris known as Brushfield spots
Excessive joint laxity
Congenital heart defects
Excessive space between large toe and second toe
Most have mental retardation in the mild (IQ 50–70) to moderate (IQ
35–50) range.
– Can have serious abnormalities affecting any body system.
– They also may have a broad head and a very round face.
Turner Syndrome
• Common symptoms of Turner syndrome include:
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Short stature
Swelling of the hands and feet
Broad chest and widely-spaced nipples
Low hairline
Low-set ears
Reproductive sterility
Rudimentary ovaries and amenorrhea (absence of a menstrual period)
Increased weight, obesity
Small fingernails
Webbing of the neck
Aorta problems
Visual impairments
Ear infections and hearing loss
Some degree of cognitive deficiency
Metabolic Disorders
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Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetic disorder characterized by a deficiency in the
enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH).
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This enzyme is necessary to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine which is found
naturally in the breast milk of mammals.
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When PAH is deficient, phenylalanine accumulates and is converted into
phenylpyruvate (also known as phenylketone), which is detected in the urine.
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PAH is found on chromosome number 12.
Left untreated, this condition can cause problems with brain development, leading to
progressive mental retardation and seizures.
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PKU is one of the few genetic diseases that can be controlled by diet. A diet low in
phenylalanine can be a very effective treatment.
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There is no cure. Damage done is irreversible so early detection is crucial.
Agents that cross the placenta
German measles
X-rays and other radiation
Toxic chemicals
Sexually transmitted diseases
Cigarette smoking
Alcohol and other drugs
Maternal Infections
• Viral infections in the mother
– Rubella infection during the first month of pregnancy affects the
organogenesis of 50% of embryos. Infection in the third month of
pregnancy still disturbs the development of 15% of fetuses. Impairments
may vary and include mental retardation, microcephaly, hearing and
vision impairment, congenital heart disease, and behavior problems.
– Congenital cytomegalovirus (Herper Virus) infection may result in
microcephaly, hearing loss, and psychomotor retardation.
– Congenital toxoplasmosis may result in significant problems in
approximately 20% of infected infants (eg, hydrocephalus,
microcephaly, psychomotor retardation, vision and hearing impairment)
and in milder developmental problems later in life.
– Congenital human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Studies
of mothers who were HIV+. Some cases the child was characterized by
microcephaly, progressive neurological deterioration, mental retardation,
and behavioral problems.
Toxic Substances
• The most important of the teratogenic substances is ethanol, which
is the cause of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS).
• The prevalence of this syndrome varies around the world, but its
occurrence in industrialized countries is estimated to be
approximately 1 in 1000 newborns.
• When used heavily during pregnancy, alcohol causes abnormalities
in 3 main categories:
– Dysmorphic features, which originate in the period of organogenesis.
– Prenatal and postnatal growth retardation, including microcephaly.
– CNS dysfunction, including mild-to-moderate mental retardation, delay
in motor development, hyperactivity, and attention deficit. The severity
of the symptoms is related to the amount of alcohol ingested.
Postnatal Causes
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Infections
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Toxic substances
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Among childhood brain tumors are second in frequency after leukemias.
Traffic accidents, drowning, and other traumas are the most common causes of death during childhood.
Even greater is the number of children who become disabled.
Psychosocial problems
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Lead poisoning is still an important cause of mental retardation in the United States. The most frequent
source of lead is pica (ie, ingestion of flaking, old, lead-based paint).
Other postnatal causes
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Bacterial and viral infections of the brain during childhood may cause meningitis and encephalitis and result
in permanent damage.
The developmental level of a growing individual depends on the integrity of the CNS and on environmental
and psychological factors.
The importance of environmental stimulation for child development has been appreciated since research on
children in institutions showed that development was severely affected in a depriving environment, even if
adequate physical care was provided.
Severe maternal mental illness is another risk factor. Mothers with severe and chronic illness might have
difficulty providing adequate care and stimulation. Maternal depression during pregnancy and postpartum
has been shown to be associated with developmental delay in children at 18 months of age.
Unknown causes
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Despite detailed assessment, no cause can be identified in approximately 30% of cases of severe mental
retardation and in 50% of cases of mild mental retardation. This, of course, reflects the inadequacy of
diagnostic techniques, rather than a lack of causation.
Culture and Maturation
Many aspects of development
depend on customs
Baby’s ability to sleep alone.
Recommendation to have babies sleep on their
back has caused many babies to skip crawling.
Attachment
A deep emotional bond that an infant
develops
with its primary caretaker.
Contact comfort
In primates, the innate pleasure derived from
close physical contact.
The basis of the infant’s first attachment.
Types of Attachment
Secure
A parent-infant relationship in which the baby is
secure when the parent is present, distressed by
separation, and delighted by reunion.
Insecure
A parent-infant relationship in which the baby
clings to the parent, cries at separation, and
reacts with anger or apathy to reunion.
Insecure Attachment
Parenting that is abusive, neglectful,
or erratic.
Child’s temperament.
Stressful circumstances in the family.
How critical are the early
years?
During the first 15 months, there is
an explosion of new synapses in
the brain. As information is
consolidated.
The brain continues developing
beyond the first three years.
• Separation Anxiety Disorder should not be confused with Separation
Anxiety, which occurs as "a normal stage of development for
healthy, secure babies."
• Separation anxiety occurs as babies begin to understand their own
selfhood—or understand that they are a separate person from their
primary caregiver.
• At the same time, the concept of object permanence emerges—
which is when children learn that something still exists when it is not
seen or heard. As babies begin to understand that they can be
separated from their primary caregiver, they do not understand that
their caregiver will return, nor do they have a concept of time. This,
in turn, causes a normal and healthy anxious reaction. Separation
anxiety typically onsets around 8 months of age and increases until
13-15 months, when it begins to decline[5].
• [edit] See also
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Separation anxiety is a psychological condition in which an individual has excessive anxiety regarding separation
from home or from people to whom the individual has a strong emotional attachment (like a father and mother).
Contents
[hide]
Background
Separation Anxiety Disorder versus Separation Anxiety
See also
References
[edit] Background
Present in all age groups, adult separation anxiety disorder (affecting roughly 7% of adults) is more common than
childhood separation anxiety disorder (affecting approximately 4% of children).[1][2] Separation anxiety disorder is
often characterized by some of the following symptoms:
Recurring distress when separated from the subject of attachment (such as significant other, the father or the
mother, or home)
Persistent, excessive worrying about losing the subject of attachment
Persistent, excessive worrying that some event will lead to separation from a major attachment
Excessive fear about being alone without subject of attachment
Persistent reluctance or refusal to go to sleep without being near a major attachment figure, like a significant other
or mother
Recurrent nightmares about separation
Often, separation anxiety disorder is a symptom of a co-morbid condition. Studies show that children suffering
from separation anxiety disorder are much more likely to have ADHD, bipolar disorder, panic disorder, and other
disorders later in life.[3]