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Motivation Today we cover • How does motivation activate, direct, and sustain behavior? • How do people achieve personal goals? • What is addiction? – Drugs and Alcohol • • • • • Opiates MDMA Marijuana LSD Alcohol Motivation • A need or desire that energizes or directs a behavior • A hypothetical state within an organism that propels it toward - Instigation and maintenance of a behavior - Achievement of a goal Some Definitions … • Instinct: A complex unlearned behavior rigidly patterned throughout a species • Homeostasis: A tendency to maintain a constant internal state • Drive-reduction theory: A physiological need creates arousal which motivates an organism to satisfy the need Definitions • “Needs” are states of deficiency • “Drives” are psychological states activated to satisfy needs • Needs produce states of arousal which drive behavior • “Incentives” are external motivators that motivate behaviors Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • Crandall & Jones (1986): Scale • Satisfaction of lower level needs creates upper level needs • Motivation enables satisfaction of needs The pleasure principle • Motivational states arouse behaviors that solve adaptive problems and produce pleasure • Pleasure is associated with dopamine release, and many pleasurable behaviors exceed adaptive needs Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic motivation • Extrinsic motivation = external goals • Intrinsic motivation = value or pleasure of an activity for its own sake • Intrinsic motivators – Curiosity – Play – Creativity – Problem solving What happens when you give extrinsic motive for an intrinsically motivated activity? What Is Addiction? Addiction Has Psychological and Physical Aspects • Physical vs. psychological dependence • Both negative and positive reinforcement operate in producing addiction • Both social and individual levels of analysis contribute to causation • Experimenters are better adjusted than abstainers Dependence • Physical Dependence • Psychological Dependence – “kicking the habit” – “going cold turkey” Negative and Positive Reinforcement • Drugs operate via negative and positive reinforcement – Using: positive reinforcement – Withdrawal unpleasant: using again = negative reinforcement – Withdrawal symptoms: positive punishment Psychopharmacology • The study of the effects of drugs on mood, sensation, consciousness, or other psychological or behavioral functions Stimulants • Increase behavioral and mental activity • Activate the sympathetic nervous system • Interfere with the normal reuptake of dopamine by the releasing neuron • Some stimulants also increase the release of dopamine • Caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines Amphetamine Psychosis • Psychosis resulting from the use of amphetamines • Paranoia, delusions, hallucinations, and thought disorder MDMA (Ecstasy) • stimulates the release and inhibits the reuptake of serotonin (5-HT) • “Tuesday Blues” • Therapeutic applications? Neurotoxicity of MDMA Marijuana • The most widely used illegal drug in North America • Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) • THC receptors in the hippocampus • Impaired focus, attention, comprehension • “Cognitive impairment from heavy marijuana use may linger for a week or longer, but it does not appear to be permanent" -Harrison Pope Opiates • • • • Analgesic properties Opium, heroine, morphine, codeine Highly addictive Cocaine developed as a cure for opiate addiction Hallucinogens • D-Lysergic acid diethylamide, Psilocybin, mescaline • LSD: actions at multiple receptors • Not physiologically addictive, no withdrawal, and no documented toxic fatalities • Psychosis: sometimes prolonged • Flashbacks and Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD) What is Alcohol? • Alcohol is a sedative • It is primarily used for recreation, not medicine • 2nd most commonly used psychoactive drug in the world (first is caffeine) Alcohol Is the Most Widely Abused Drug • Alcohol’s believed effects motivate drinking • The balanced placebo design helps researchers separate alcohol effects from alcohol-expectancy effects • Believing one has consumed alcohol can produce learned disinhibition of social behaviors The Pharmacokinetics of Alcohol: Absorption • Alcohol is soluble in both fat and water • This means alcohol is absorbed though the gastrointestinal tract and through the blood brain barrier • 20% is absorbed through the stomach the other 80% through the upper intestine Concentration-Effect Relationship BAC [%] Effects 0.02-0.03 Mood elevation. Slight muscle relaxation. 0.05-0.06 Relaxation and Warmth. Increased reaction time. Decreased fine muscle coordination. 0.08-0.09 Impaired balance, speech, vision, hearing, muscle coordination. Euphoria. 0.14-0.15 Gross impairment of physical and mental control. 0.20-0.30 Severely intoxicated. Very little control of mind or body. 0.40-0.50 Unconscious. Deep coma. Death from respiratory depression The Pharmacokinetics of Alcohol: Distribution • Alcohol easily crosses the blood-brain barrier because it is lipid soluble • Alcohol can even cross the placental barrier and cause fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). FAS occurs in 30% to 50% of the infants of alcoholic mothers. Genetic Variation in ALDH Acetaldehyde Dehydrogenase (ALDH) varies in Whites, Blacks and Asians. 50% of Asians have inactive ALDH Elevated acetaldehyde cause increased flushing, tachycardia (elevated heart rate), nausea, vomiting & hyperventilation. Metabolism of Alcohol by Men and Women • Since men have less fat then women and larger blood vessels, men have a lower Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) than women • Also, women have 50% less enzyme then men, thus the metabolism rate is slower for alcohol absorption, so it takes longer for females’ bodies to rid themselves of the alcohol