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prepared by
Betsy C. Brantley
Valencia College
CHAPTER
11
Blood and
Blood Vessels
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 11 Learning Outcomes
• Section 1: Blood
• 11.1
• Describe the important components and major properties of
blood.
• 11.2
• List the characteristics and functions of red blood cells, and
describe the structure and functions of hemoglobin.
• 11.3
• Explain the basis of the ABO blood types and Rh factor, the
significance of blood typing, and the important of testing for
blood compatibility.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 11 Learning Outcomes
• 11.4
• CLINICAL MODULE Describe hemolytic disease of the
newborn, explain the clinical significance of the cross-reaction
between fetal and maternal blood types, and cite preventive
measures.
• 11.5
• Identify the various types of white blood cells, categorize the
types as granular or agranular, and describe the structures and
functions of each type.
• 11.6
• Explain the origins and differentiation of the formed elements,
describe platelets and the role of erythropoietin.
• 11.7
• Explain the three phases of the clotting response, describe clot
retraction, and compare an embolus with a thrombus.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 11 Learning Outcomes
• 11.8
• CLINICAL MODULE Explain why venipuncture is useful, and
describe various types of blood disorders within clinical
categories.
• Section 2: The Functional Anatomy of Blood Vessels
• 11.9
• Distinguish among the types of blood vessels on the basis of
their structure and function.
• 11.10
• CLINICAL MODULE Define arteriosclerosis and
atherosclerosis, identify risk factors for each, and cite treatment
options.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 11 Learning Outcomes
• 11.11
• Describe the structure of a capillary bed and the functions of
capillaries in the exchange of dissolved materials between
blood and interstitial fluid.
• 11.12
• Describe the venous system, and indicate the distribution of
blood within the cardiovascular system.
• 11.13
• Describe the pulmonary circuit, citing major arteries and veins
and areas each serves.
• 11.14
• Identify the major arteries and veins of the systemic circuit, and
name the areas each serves.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 11 Learning Outcomes
• 11.15
• Identify the branches of the aortic arch and the branches of the
superior vena cava, and name the areas each serves.
• 11.16
• Identify the branches of the carotid arteries, and the tributaries
of the external jugular veins, and name the areas each serves.
• 11.17
• Identify the branches of the internal carotid and vertebral
arteries, and the tributaries of the internal jugular veins, and
name the areas each serves.
• 11.18
• Identify the branches of the descending aorta and the tributaries
of the venae cavae, and name the areas each serves.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 11 Learning Outcomes
• 11.19
• Identify the branches of the visceral arterial vessels and the
venous tributaries of the hepatic portal system, and name the
areas each serves.
• 11.20
• Identify the branches of the common iliac artery and the
tributaries of the common iliac vein, and name the areas each
serves.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Components of the Cardiovascular System
(Section 1)
• Cardiovascular system consists of:
• Fluid – blood
• Conducting tubes – blood vessels
• Capillaries
• Arteries
• Veins
• Pump – heart
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Functions of Cardiovascular Components
(Section 1)
• Blood
• Distributes oxygen, carbon dioxide, and blood cells
• Delivers nutrients and hormones
• Transports wastes
• Assists in temperature regulation and defense against
disease
• Blood vessels
• Distribute blood around the body
• Heart
• Propels blood and maintains blood pressure
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Components of the cardiovascular system
The Components of the Cardiovascular System
BLOOD
Heart
Capillaries
BLOOD VESSELS
Capillaries
Arteries
Veins
Artery
Vein
THE HEART
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11 Section 1 1 1
Functions of Blood (Section 1)
• Transports
• Oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, hormones, wastes
• Regulates
• pH and ion composition by absorbing and neutralizing acids
• Restricts
• Fluid loss at injury sites with clotting process
• Defends
• Against toxins and pathogens with white blood cells and antibodies
• Stabilizes
• Temperature by absorbing heat and distributing blood flow to
different areas
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Blood Facts (11.1)
• Fluid connective tissue
• Consists of:
• Plasma
• Formed elements
• Amount in body
• 5–6 liters in average male
• 4–5 liters in average female
• Whole blood is term for blood removed from body
• Blood may be fractionated or separated to
analyze a specific component
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Whole Blood (11.1)
• Temperature roughly 38ºC
• Five times as viscous (thick) as water
• Slightly alkaline, pH ~7.40 (7.35–7.45)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The composition of whole blood
Plasma Proteins
Albumins
Globulins
PLASMA COMPOSITION
Plasma proteins
7%
Other solutes
1%
Water
92%
Plasma
Transports organic and
inorganic molecules,
formed elements, and heat
Fibrinogen
Enzymes and hormones
Other Solutes
Electrolytes
Organic nutrients
55%
Organic wastes
(Range: 46–63%)
Whole
blood
Formed
elements
Platelets
45%
(Range: 37–54%)
FORMED ELEMENTS
Platelets
< .1%
White blood cells
< .1%
Red blood cells
99.9%
White Blood Cells
Basophils
Neutrophils
Lymphocytes
Eosinophils
Monocytes
Red Blood Cells
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.1
Plasma (11.1)
• Forms 55 percent (46–63 percent) of whole blood
volume
• Transports organic and inorganic molecules,
formed elements, heat
• Composed of:
• 92 percent water
• 7 percent plasma proteins
• 1 percent other solutes
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Plasma Proteins (11.1)
• Albumins – about 60 percent of plasma proteins
• Contribute to osmotic pressure of plasma
• Globulins – about 35 percent of plasma proteins
• Include antibodies (immunoglobulins) and transport
globulins
• Fibrinogen – about 4 percent of plasma proteins
• Function in clotting
• Interact to form large strands of fibrin
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Other Plasma Solutes (11.1)
• Electrolytes
• Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl–, HCO3–, HPO4–, SO42–
• Organic nutrients
• Lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids
• Organic wastes
• Urea, uric acid, creatinine, bilirubin, ammonium ions
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Plasma components
Plasma Proteins
Albumins
Globulins
PLASMA COMPOSITION
Plasma proteins
7%
1%
Other solutes
Water
92%
Plasma
55%
(Range: 46–63%)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Transports organic and
inorganic molecules,
formed elements, and heat
Fibrinogen
Enzymes and hormones
Other Solutes
Electrolytes
Organic nutrients
Organic wastes
Figure 11.1 11
Formed Elements (11.1)
• Account for about 45 percent (37–54 percent) of whole
blood
• Hematocrit or packed cell volume (PCV)
• Percentage of whole blood volume that is formed elements
• Averages 42 percent (females) to 47 percent (males)
• Androgens (male hormones) stimulate RBC production
• Estrogens (female hormones) do not
• Composed of:
• 99.9 percent red blood cells
• <.1 percent white blood cells
• <.1 percent platelets
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Formed Element Details (11.1)
• Red blood cells (RBCs) or erythrocytes
• Most abundant blood cells
• Essential for oxygen transport
• White blood cells (WBCs) or leukocytes
• Part of body's defense mechanism
• Platelets
• Membrane-bound cell fragments
• Important to clotting process
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Formed elements
Formed
elements
Platelets
45%
(Range: 37–54%)
FORMED ELEMENTS
Platelets
< .1%
< .1%
White blood cells
Red blood cells
99.9%
White Blood Cells
Basophils
Neutrophils
Lymphocytes
Eosinophils
Monocytes
Red Blood Cells
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.1 22
Module 11.1 Review
a. Define hematocrit.
b. Identify the two components making up whole
blood, and list the composition of each.
c. During an infection, which components of blood
would be elevated?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Red Blood Cells (11.2)
• Red blood cell count is number of RBCs per
microliter (cubic millimeter)
• Males 4.5–6.3 million per µL
• Females 4.2–5.5 million per µL
• RBCs make up about one-third of all cells in the
human body
• Biconcave disc with thin center and thicker margin
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The anatomy of red blood cells
7.2–8.4 μm
0.45–1.16 μm
Stained blood smear LM x 450
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
2.31–2.85 μm
RBCs Colorized SEM x 2100
Figure 11.2 11- 2– 2
Functional Aspects of Red Blood Cells (11.2)
• Large surface area-to-volume ratio
• Oxygen bound to hemoglobin in RBCs
• Greater surface area allows for faster exchange of
oxygen
• RBCs can form stacks
• Allows easier flow through narrow blood vessels without
jamming
• Flexibility
• Can bend and flex to squeeze through capillaries as
small as 4 µm (nearly half the normal RBC diameter)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Functional aspects of red blood cells
Stack of RBCs
Blood vessels (viewed
in longitudinal section)
Nucleus of endothelial cell
Red blood cell (RBC)
Sectional view of
capillaries
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
LM x 1430
Figure 11.2 33
Features of Red Blood Cells (11.2)
• RBCs designed to carry oxygen
• Contain very few organelles, no nuclei
• Cannot divide or repair themselves
• Life span less than 120 days
• Filled with hemoglobin (Hb)
• Hemoglobin content of whole blood
• 14–18 g/dL in males
• 12–16 g/dL in females
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Structure of hemoglobin
Subunits
Heme
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.2 14- 2– 5
Hemoglobin (11.2)
• Composed of four globin subunits
• Each subunit has single heme molecule
• Each heme holds an iron ion
• Blood with oxygen bound to hemoglobin
• Oxyhemoglobin – bright red
• Blood with lots of hemoglobin not bound to oxygen
• Deoxyhemoglobin – dark red
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Oxyhemoglobin formation
+
Oxygen
O2
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Hb
HbO2
Figure 11.2 66
Red Blood Cell Production and Recycling (11.2)
• RBCs continually produced and recycled
• 1 percent replaced each day
• 3 million new RBCs enter bloodstream each
second
• Short lifespan of 120 days, then:
• Plasma membrane ruptures or cell is engulfed by
macrophages
• Broken down in liver, spleen, or red bone marrow
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 11.2 Review
a. Why is it important for RBCs to have a large
surface area-to-volume ratio?
b. Describe hemoglobin.
c. Compare oxyhemoglobin with deoxyhemoglobin.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Blood Type (11.3)
• Antigens trigger an immune response
• Plasma membrane of body's cells contains
surface antigens
• Immune system recognizes these as "self"
• Blood type determined by surface antigens on RBCs
• Most important A, B, and Rh (D)
• Plasma contains antibodies that attack antigens on
"foreign" RBCs
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Blood types and antigens
Type A
Type B
Type AB
Both A and B
surface antigens
Surface
antigen A
Anti-B antibodies
in plasma
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Surface
antigen B
Type O
Neither A nor
B surface
antigens
Neither anti-A nor
anti-B antibodies
in plasma
Anti-A antibodies
in plasma
Both anti-A and
anti-B antibodies
in plasma
Figure 11.3 1
Cross-reaction (11.3)
• Surface antigens on RBCs of one blood type
exposed to antibodies from another blood type
• Response is agglutination or clumping together
• Cells may also rupture (hemolysis)
• Called a cross-reaction
• Clumps can block small blood vessels causing damage
to tissues
• One cause would be transfusion of incorrect blood type
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Cross-reaction causing agglutination and hemolysis
Slide 1
RBC
Surface antigens
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.3 2
Cross-reaction causing agglutination and hemolysis
Slide 2
RBC
+
Surface antigens
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Opposing
antibodies
Figure 11.3 2
Slide 3
Cross-reaction causing agglutination and hemolysis
RBC
+
Surface antigens
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Opposing
antibodies
Agglutination
(clumping)
Figure 11.3 2
Slide 4
Cross-reaction causing agglutination and hemolysis
RBC
+
Surface antigens
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Opposing
antibodies
Agglutination
(clumping)
Hemolysis
Figure 11.3 2
Complete Blood Type (11.3)
• Different distribution of blood types in human
population
• Rh positive (Rh+)
• Presence of Rh surface antigen
• Rh negative (Rh–)
• Absence of Rh surface antigen
• Full blood type reported as letter (A, B, AB, O) and
positive or negative sign (A+, O–, etc.)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.3 3
Transfusion Reaction (11.3)
• Blood typing tests
• Drops of blood mixed with antibody solution
• Clumping (agglutination) occurs when solution contains
same antibody as surface antigen
• Cross-reaction is also called transfusion reaction
• No transfusion reaction if blood types are compatible
• Donor's blood cells and recipient's plasma will not react
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Anti-A
Anti-B
Anti-Rh
Blood
type
A+
B+
AB+
O–
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.3 4
Antibodies in Plasma (11.3)
• Anti-A and anti-B antibodies present at birth
• Anti-Rh antibodies formed only if an Rh-negative
person is exposed to Rh-positive blood
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 11.3 Review
a. What is the function of surface antigens on
RBCs?
b. Which blood type(s) can be safely transfused into
a person with Type O blood?
c. Why can't a person with Type A blood safely
receive blood from a person with Type B blood?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (11.4)
• Surface antigens on RBCs genetically determined
• Child inherits genes from both parents and may
have different blood type than either parent
• During pregnancy, mother's antibodies may cross
placenta
• If fetus is Rh positive and mother Rh negative,
mother's anti-Rh antibodies can attack fetus
• Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Rh– Mother with First Rh+ Fetus (11.4)
• Rh– mother not exposed to fetal red blood cells
until delivery
• Exposure stimulates mother's immune system to
produce anti-Rh antibodies
• Process called sensitization
• If future pregnancy involves Rh+ fetus:
• Maternal anti-Rh antibodies can cross placenta
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Rh– Mother with Subsequent Rh+ Fetus (11.4)
• Maternal anti-Rh antibodies can cross placenta into fetal
bloodstream and destroy fetal RBCs
• Dropping RBC count in fetus makes immature RBCs
(erythroblasts) leave red bone marrow early
• Condition (HDN), also called erythroblastosis fetalis, has
very high fatality rate without treatment
• Condition prevented by giving mother anti-Rh antibodies
(RhoGAM)
• These antibodies destroy fetal RBCs that have crossed
placenta before they stimulate maternal immune response
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Hemolytic disease of the newborn
Rh–
mother
First Pregnancy of an Rh– Mother
with an Rh+ Infant
Rh+
fetus
During first pregnancy
Rh–
Very few fetal cells
enter the maternal
bloodstream during
first pregnancy.
Maternal blood supply
and tissue
Rh–
Rh–
Rh–
Placenta
Rh+
Rh+
Rh+
Fetal blood supply
and tissue
Rh+
Rh–
mother
Second Pregnancy of an Rh – Mother
with an Rh+ Infant
In future pregnancy
with Rh+ fetus, maternal
anti-Rh antibodies can
cross the placenta and
destroy fetal RBCs causing
erythroblastosis fetalis
(hemolytic disease of the
newborn).
Rh+
fetus
During Second Pregnancy
Rh–
Maternal blood supply
and tissue
Rh–
Hemorrhaging at delivery
Bleeding during
delivery allows mixing
of fetal and maternal
blood, stimulating
mother's immune
system to produce
anti-Rh antibodies
Rh+
Rh–
Maternal blood supply
and tissue
Rh+
Rh–
Rh+
Rh–
Rh+
Rh+
Fetal blood supply
and tissue
Hemolysis of
fetal RBCs
Rh+
Rh+
Maternal
anti-Rh
antibodies
Rh–
Rh+
Maternal RBC
Rh–
Rh+
Fetal blood supply
and tissue
Rh antigen on
fetal red blood cells
Maternal antibody production
Anti-Rh antibodies
are produced after
delivery, so first infant
not affected.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Rh–
Maternal blood supply
and tissue
Maternal antibodies
to Rh antigen
Rh–
Rh–
Rh–
Figure 11.4
Module 11.4 Review
a. Define hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN).
b. Why is RhoGAM administered to Rh– mothers?
c. Does an Rh+ mother carrying an Rh– fetus
require a RhoGAM injection? Explain your
answer.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Shared Properties of White Blood Cells (11.5)
• Circulate in bloodstream for short period then migrate into
loose and dense connective tissue
• Activated in bloodstream
• Squeeze through adjacent endothelial cells in process
called diapedesis
• Attracted to specific chemical stimuli
• This positive chemotaxis guides WBCs to pathogens and
damaged tissue where needed
• Some (neutrophils, eosinophils, monocytes) are
phagocytes
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
White blood cells
White Blood
Cells
Cell Type
Neutrophils
GRANULAR
LEUKOCYTES
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Basophils
Monocytes
AGRANULAR
LEUKOCYTES
Monocytes
Lymphocytes
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lymphocytes
Figure 11.5
Granular Leukocytes (11.5)
• Leukocytes with abundant cytoplasmic granules
that absorb stains when making slides
• Neutrophils
• 50–70 percent of leukocytes
• Eosinophils
• 2–4 percent of leukocytes
• Basophils
• <1 percent of leukocytes
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Granular leukocytes
White Blood Cells
Cell Type
Average
Amount
per µL
Neutrophils 4150
GRANULAR
LEUKOCYTES
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
(range
1800–7300)
Differential
count:
50–70%
165 (range
Eosinophils 0–700)
Differential
count: 2–4%
Basophils 44 (range:
0–150)
Differential
count: <1%
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Appearance in a
Stained Blood Smear
Functions
Round cell; nucleus
lobed and may
resemble a string of
beads; cytoplasm
contains large, pale
inclusions
Phagocytic: engulf
pathogens or debris
in injured or infected
tissues; release
cytotoxic enzymes
and chemicals
Round cell; nucleus
generally has two
lobes; cytoplasm contains large granules
that generally stain
bright red
Phagocytic: engulf
antibody-labeled
materials; release
cytotoxic enzymes;
reduce inflammation; increase in
number in allergic
reactions and parasitic infections
Round cell; nucleus
generally cannot be
seen through dense,
blue-stained granules
in cytoplasm
Enter damaged tissues and release
histamine and other
chemicals that promote inflammation
Figure 11.5
1
Agranular Leukocytes (11.5)
• Few, if any, cytoplasmic granules that absorb
histological stain
• Monocytes
• 2–8 percent of leukocytes
• Lymphocytes
• 20–40 percent of leukocytes
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Agranular leukocytes
White Blood Cells
Cell Type
Monocytes
AGRANULAR
LEUKOCYTES
Average
Amount
per µL
Appearance in a
Stained Blood Smear
456 (range:
200–950)
Differential
count: 2–8%
Very large cell;
nucleus kidney beanto horseshoe-shaped;
abundant cytoplasm
Phagocytic: enter
tissues and become
macrophages;
engulf pathogens or
debris
2185 (range:
1500–4000)
Differential
count:
20–40%
Generally round cell,
slightly larger than
RBC; round nucleus;
very little cytoplasm
Cells of lymphatic
system; provide
defense against specific pathogens or
toxins
Monocytes
Lymphocytes
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lymphocytes
Functions
Figure 11.5
2
White Blood Cell Count (11.5)
• Average 7000 WBCs per microliter (5000–10,000)
• Pathogenic infections cause changes in circulating
WBCs
• Differential count of WBCs indicates number of each
type of WBC in sample of 100 WBCs
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 11.5 Review
a. Identify the five types of white blood cells.
b. Which types of white blood cells would you find in
the greatest numbers in an infected cut?
c. How do basophils respond during inflammation?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Stem Cells (11.6)
• Formed elements develop in red bone marrow
• Process is called hematopoiesis
• Multipotent stem cell is a hemocytoblast
• Division of a hemocytoblast produces two types of stem
cells
• Lymphoid stem cell
• Myeloid stem cell
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Stem Cell Paths (11.6)
• Lymphoid stem cells develop into lymphocytes
• Some stem cells remain in red bone marrow; others
migrate to lymphoid tissues
• Myeloid stem cells develop into all other formed
elements
• Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs)
• Hormones released by activated lymphocytes and other
cells in immune response
• Stimulate blood cell formation
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Development of formed elements
FORMED
ELEMENTS
OF BLOOD
Blast Cells
Lymphoid Stem Cells
Lymphoblast
Prolymphocyte
Lymphocyte
Monoblast
Promonocyte
Monocyte
Band Cells
Hemocytoblasts
Progenitor
Cells
Neutrophil
Eosinophil
Myeloblast
Basophil
Myeloid Stem Cells
Megakaryocytes
Platelets
Proerythroblast Erythroblast Reticulocyte
stages
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Erythrocyte
Figure 11.6
1
Stimulation of RBC Production (11.6)
•
Erythropoietin (EPO) is released into plasma when
oxygen levels are low (hypoxia) such as with:
•
1.
Anemia
2.
Declining blood flow to kidneys
3.
Decreased oxygen content of air in lungs (e.g., at high
4.
altitudes)
5.
Damage to respiratory surface of lungs
EPO stimulates stem cells in red bone marrow to produce
RBCs
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Platelets (11.6)
• Cell fragments formed from megakaryocytes
• Flattened discs
• 350,000 (150,000–500,000) per µL
• Function in blood clotting
• Continually replaced
• Circulate 9–12 days before removed by phagocytes
primarily in spleen
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 11.6 Review
a. Define hemocytoblast.
b. Explain the role of erythropoietin.
c. Compare the types of cells that lymphoid stem
cells and myeloid stem cells produce.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Clotting Response (11.7)
•
Process of stopping loss of blood through
damaged vessels is hemostasis
•
Complex cascade of events requiring completion
of one phase to trigger next
•
Three phases
1. Vascular phase
2. Platelet phase
3. Coagulation phase
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Vascular Phase of Hemostasis (11.7)
• Lasts about 30 minutes after injury
• Two major events
• Endothelial cells contract, exposing basement
membrane to bloodstream
• Local contraction of smooth muscle in vessel wall
(vascular spasm)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Platelet Phase of Hemostasis (11.7)
• Begins with attachment of platelets to:
• Sticky endothelial surfaces
• Basement membrane
• Exposed collagen fibers
• Other platelets
• Clotting factors released by platelets
• Attract more platelets to site that stick together
(aggregate)
• Stimulate local vessel contraction
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Coagulation Phase of Hemostasis (11.7)
• Starts 30 seconds or more after vessel damage
• Coagulation (blood clotting) complex sequence of steps
• Requires procoagulants (clotting factors) circulating in
plasma
• 11 different proteins and calcium
• Many clotting factors are proenzymes
• Conversion of one proenzyme to active form
commonly creates a chain reaction
• Final step: fibrinogen is converted to fibrin (insoluble)
• Fibrin network traps blood cells and platelets, forming clot
and sealing damaged area
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Pathways (11.7)
• Extrinsic pathway begins with release of tissue factor by
damaged cells
• More damage = more tissue factor and faster clotting
• Tissue factor combines with clotting factor VII to activate
Factor X (first step in common pathway)
• Intrinsic pathway begins with activation of proenzymes
exposed to collagen fibers at injury
• Activated proenzyme combines with platelet factor to activate
Factor X
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Common Pathway (11.7)
• Extrinsic and intrinsic pathways both activate Factor X
• Activated Factor X forms prothrombinase
• Prothrombinase converts prothrombin to thrombin
• Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin
• Clot retraction
• After fibrin meshwork formed, platelets contract, pulling tissues
together
• Continues for 30–60 minutes
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Process of hemostasis
Coagulation Phase
Vascular Phase
Platelet Phase
Common Pathway
Extrinsic Pathway
Knife blade
Plasma in
vessel lumen
Intrinsic Pathway
Release of clotting
factors
Factor X
Platelet
aggregation
Blood vessel injury
Prothrombin
Basement
membrane
Vessel
wall
Vascular spasm
Platelet plug
may form
Thrombin
Fibrin
Clotting factor
(VII)
Fibrinogen
Clotting factors
Platelet
factor
Contracted smooth
muscle cells
Cut edge of
vessel wall
Factor X
activator
complex
Prothrombinase
Tissue factor
complex
Endothelium
Platelet
adhesion to
damaged
vessel
Tissue factor
Activated
proenzymes
Tissue
damage
Contracted smooth
muscle cells
Clot Retraction
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.7 1
Inappropriate Blood Clotting (11.7)
• Blood clots may form in bloodstream where no
injury has occurred
• Drifting blood clot is embolus
• May lodge in smaller blood vessel, blocking blood flow
and causing tissue death
• Sudden blockage called embolism
• Tissue damage called infarction or infarct
• In brain, stroke
• In heart, myocardial infarction (heart attack)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Embolus
Embolism
blocks
blood vessel
Embolus
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.7 2
Thrombus (11.7)
• A blood clot attached to a vessel wall where no
damage has occurred is a thrombus
• Often forms where platelets attracted to plaques
• Large quantities of lipids that constrict vessel diameter
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Thrombus
Thrombus
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Plaque
Figure 11.7 3
Clot Dissolution (11.7)
• Process of clot dissolving is fibrinolysis
• Begins with activation of plasminogen to plasmin
• Thrombin and tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA)
part of the process
• Plasmin erodes clot
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 11.7 Review
a. Define hemostasis and name its three phases.
b. Briefly describe the vascular, platelet, and
coagulation phases of hemostasis.
c. Compare an embolus with a thrombus.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Blood Disorder Diagnosis (11.8)
• Have to obtain blood for diagnosis
• One method is venipuncture
• Blood collected from superficial vein
• Advantages
• Superficial veins easy to locate
• Walls of veins thinner than arteries
• Blood pressure in venous system is low, so the puncture
heals quickly
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Venipuncture
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.8 1
Nutritional Blood Disorders (11.8)
• Iron deficiency anemia
• Caused by insufficient iron intake (needed to form normal
hemoglobin)
• Resulting RBCs are small and transport less oxygen
• More common in women as iron reserves about ½ that in typical
man
• Pernicious anemia
• Deficiency of vitamin B12 prevents normal stem cell divisions in red
bone marrow
• Resulting RBCs abnormally large and oddly shaped
• Clotting disorders
• Insufficient calcium (needed for clotting process)
• Insufficient vitamin K (required by liver to synthesize clotting
factors)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Congenital Blood Disorders (11.8)
• Hemophilia
• Inherited bleeding disorder affecting 1 person in 10,000
• 80–90 percent male
• Caused by missing or reduced production of clotting
factor
• In severe cases, bleeding with minor contact and
around joints and muscles
• Thalassemia
• Group of inherited blood disorders
• Inability to produce enough protein subunits of
hemoglobin
• Sickle cell anemia
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sickle Cell Anemia (11.8)
• Mutation affects amino acid sequence of globin subunits in
hemoglobin
• RBCs sickle when they release oxygen
• RBCs more fragile and sickled shape catches on capillary
walls more easily, blocking blood flow
• Must have two copies of sickling gene to have sickle cell
anemia
• If only one copy of sickling gene, result is sickling trait
• Sickling trait gives some resistance to malaria
• Infection of RBCs causes sickling; sickled cells destroyed
by macrophages, along with malarial pathogen
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sickle cell disease
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.8 2
Infections of the Blood (11.8)
• Bacteremia
• Bacteria circulating in blood, but not multiplying there
• Viremia
• Viruses circulating in blood, but not multiplying there
• Sepsis
• Widespread pathogenic infection of body tissue
• Septicemia
• Sepsis of blood ("blood poisoning")
• Pathogens multiply in blood and spread throughout body
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Septicemia
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.8 2
Malaria (11.8)
• Parasitic disease caused by protozoan Plasmodium
• Kills 1.5–3 million people per year
• Transmitted by mosquito
• More common in tropical countries
• Parasite invades liver cells, enlarges and fragments
• Fragments infect red blood cells
• 2–3 day intervals, all infected RBCs rupture and release more
parasites
• Cycles of fever and chills correspond to reinfection
• Dead RBCs can block blood vessels, resulting in damage to
kidney, brain, and any other tissue
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Malarial parasite
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.8 2
Cancers of the Blood (11.8)
• Leukemias
• Cancers of blood-forming tissues
• Spread throughout the body instead of compact tumor
• Myeloid leukemia
• Presence of abnormal granulocytes in red bone marrow
• Lymphoid leukemia
• Involves lymphocytes and their stem cells
• Symptoms appear when immature and abnormal WBCs in
circulation
• Fatal if untreated
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Leukemia
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.8 2
Degenerative Blood Disorders (11.8)
• Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)
• Bacterial toxins activate steps in coagulation process
• Fibrinogen is converted to fibrin in circulating blood
• Resulting small clots can block small vessels
• Liver has to increase production of fibrinogen or ability
to clot where needed declines
• Result is uncontrolled bleeding
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 11.8 Review
a. Define venipuncture.
b. Identify the two types of leukemia.
c. Compare iron deficiency anemia with pernicious
anemia.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Blood Vessel Circuits (Section 2)
• Both circuits begin and end at the heart and flow in
sequence
• Pulmonary circuit
• Carries blood to and from gas exchange surfaces of lungs
• Systemic circuit
• Transports blood to and from rest of body
• Blood carried away from heart in arteries or efferent
vessels
• Blood returns to heart in veins or afferent vessels
• Microscopic capillaries interconnect smallest arteries and
veins
• Thin walls allow exchange of nutrients, gases, and waste products
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview of the cardiovascular system
2
4
Pulmonary Circuit
Systemic Circuit
Capillaries in head,
neck, upper limbs
Systemic arteries
Pulmonary arteries
Capillaries in lungs
Pulmonary veins
3
Start 1
Right atrium
Left atrium
Left ventricle
Right ventricle
Systemic veins
Capillaries in trunk
and lower limbs
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11 Section 2
Three Wall Layers of Arteries and Veins (11.9)
1. Tunica intima (or tunica interna)
•
Innermost layer
2. Tunica media
•
Middle layer
3. Tunica externa (or tunica adventitia)
•
Outermost layer
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tunica Intima (11.9)
• Innermost layer
• Includes endothelial lining and underlying
connective tissue with elastic fibers
• Arteries also include internal elastic membrane
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tunica Media (11.9)
• Middle layer
• Concentric sheets of smooth muscle
• Contraction decreases vessel diameter
(vasoconstriction)
• Relaxation increases vessel diameter
(vasodilation)
• Arteries also include external elastic membrane
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tunica Externa (11.9)
• Outermost layer
• Connective tissue sheath
• Arterial tunica externa contain collagen fibers with
scattered elastic fibers
• Venous tunica externa
• Thicker than tunica media
• Contains networks of elastic fibers and bundles of smooth muscles
• Connective tissue fibers blend into adjacent tissues
• Stabilizing and anchoring blood vessel
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Comparison of typical artery and typical vein
Artery
Artery
Vein
Tunica intima
(tunica interna)
Tunica media
Smooth muscle
Internal elastic
membrane
External elastic
membrane
Endothelium
LM x 60
Vein
Elastic fiber
Endothelium
Tunica externa
(tunicia adventitia)
Smooth muscle
Tunica intima
Tunica media
Tunica externa
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.9 1
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.9 1
Veins (11.9)
• Large veins
• Contain all three vessel wall layers
• Include superior and inferior venae cavae and
tributaries
• Medium-sized veins
• Thin tunica media with smooth muscle cells and
collagen fibers
• Thickest layer is tunica externa with elastic and collagen
fibers
• Venules
• Smallest venous vessels
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Cross-sectional views of vein walls
Large Vein
Tunica externa
Tunica media
Tunica intima
Medium-sized Vein
Tunica externa
Tunica media
Tunica intima
Venule
Tunica externa
Endothelium
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.9 2
Arteries (11.9)
• Elastic arteries
• Large vessels transporting blood away from heart
• Include pulmonary trunk, aorta, and branches
• Capable of stretching and recoiling
• Muscular arteries
• Medium-sized arteries
• Distribute blood to skeletal muscles and internal organs
• Arterioles
• Tunica media has only one or two layers of smooth
muscle cells
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Cross-sectional views of artery walls
Elastic Artery
Internal elastic
membrane
Tunica intima
Tunica media
Tunica externa
Muscular Artery
Tunica externa
Tunica media
Tunica intima
Arteriole
Smooth muscle cells
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Endothelium
Figure 11.9 2
Blood Flow Pattern and Capillaries (11.9)
• Arteries carry blood away from the heart
• Branch into smaller arteries, then into arterioles,
and then into capillaries
• From capillaries, blood flows into venules, then
into veins, and back to the heart
• Capillaries are only blood vessels to allow
exchange between blood and interstitial fluid
• Thin walls allow easy diffusion
• Pores allow exchange of water and solutes
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Capillary structure
Capillaries
Pores
Endothelial cells
Basement membrane
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Endothelial cells
Basement membrane
Figure 11.9 2
Module 11.9 Review
a. List the five general classes of blood vessels.
b. Describe a capillary.
c. A cross section of tissues shows several small,
thin-walled vessels with very little smooth muscle
tissue in the tunica media. Which type of vessels
are these?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Arteriosclerosis (11.10)
• Thickening and toughening of arterial walls
• Complications account for half of all deaths in the
United States
• Varied effects include coronary artery disease
(CAD), potential heart attacks and stroke
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Atherosclerosis (11.10)
• Formation of fatty deposits in tunica media of arteries
• Associated with damage to endothelial lining
• Most common form of arteriosclerosis
• Tends to develop in people with elevated lipid (cholesterol)
levels
• Result is atherosclerotic plaque
• Fatty mass of tissue restricting blood flow
• Elderly (especially men) more likely to develop plaques
• Risk factors include high blood pressure and smoking
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Coronary artery narrowed by plaque formation
Plaque deposit
in vessel wall
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.10 1
Treatment for Plaques (11.10)
•
Remove and replace damaged segment of vessel
•
Balloon angioplasty
•
Catheter with inflatable balloon inserted into artery
•
Balloon inflated, pressing plaque against wall
•
Most effective treating small, soft plaques
•
Advantages over vessel replacement procedure
1. Mortality rate only about 1 percent
2. Success rate over 90 percent
3. Procedure can be done as outpatient
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Balloon angioplasty
Catheter
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Balloon
Arterial wall
Figure 11.10 2
Module 11.10 Review
a. Compare arteriosclerosis with atherosclerosis.
b. Identify risk factors for the development of
atherosclerosis.
c. Describe balloon angioplasty.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Capillary Arrangement (11.11)
• Capillary beds
• Contain several connections between arterioles and venules
• Initial part of connection passageway, metarteriole, has smooth
muscle that can contract to change vessel diameter
• Flow within each capillary variable, adjusted by precapillary
sphincters
• Rhythmic changes to vessel diameter, vasomotion, causes pulsing
movement of blood
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Capillary Bed (11.11)
• May receive blood from more than one artery
• Collateral arteries fuse and give rise to arterioles
• Fusion is example of arterial anastomosis
• Arterioles branch into dozens of capillaries
• Precapillary sphincter (band of smooth muscle) found at
entry of each capillary controls flow of blood into capillary
• Arteriovenous anastomosis is direct connection between
arteriole and venule
• Blood flow through anastomoses regulated by sympathetic
innervation controlled by cardiovascular centers of medulla
oblongata
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Typical capillary bed
Collateral arteries
Vein
Venule
Arteriole
Metarteriole
Smooth
muscle cells
Thoroughfare
channel
Capillaries
Precapillary
sphincter
Small
venules
Arteriovenous
anastomosis
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Precapillary
sphincters
KEY
Continuous
blood flow
Variable
blood flow
Figure 11.11
Module 11.11 Review
a. What is the role of precapillary sphincters?
b. Define vasomotion.
c. Describe blood flow through an arteriovenous
anastomosis.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Venous System (11.12)
• Arterial system under high pressure
• Peripheral venule blood pressure about 10 percent
of that in ascending aorta
• Mechanisms to maintain flow in veins against
gravity
• Valves
• Folds of tunica intima projecting from vessel wall and pointing in
direction of blood flow
• Contraction of skeletal muscles
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Valves and Blood Flow (11.12)
• Contraction of skeletal muscle squeezes blood toward
heart
• Valves permit blood flow in one direction and prevent
backflow of blood toward capillaries
• If valves do not work properly, blood can pool in veins and
distend them causing:
• Mild discomfort and cosmetic problem as with varicose veins
• Painful distortion of adjacent tissues as in hemorrhoids
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Function of valves in the venous system
Valve
closed
Valves above the contracting
muscle open, allowing blood
to move toward the heart.
Valve
closed
Valves below the contracting
muscle are forced closed,
preventing backflow of blood
to the capillaries.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.12 1
Blood Distribution in the Body (11.12)
• Uneven distribution among arteries, veins, and
capillaries
• Systemic veins contain 64 percent of total blood
volume
• Nearly 1/3 of venous blood in liver, bone marrow, and
skin
• Systemic arteries contain 13 percent total blood
volume
• Remaining blood in systemic capillaries, heart,
and pulmonary circuit
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Distribution of blood in the cardiovascular system
64%
9%
Systemic
venous
system
Pulmonary
circuit
Heart
Systemic
arterial
system
Systemic
capillaries
7%
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
7%
13%
Figure 11.12 2
Venoconstriction (11.12)
• Body maintains blood volume in arterial system
even in case of hemorrhage by reducing volume of
blood in venous system
• Controlled by vasomotor center in medulla
oblongata
• Sympathetic nerves stimulate smooth muscles in
medium-sized veins
• Result is venoconstriction (reduced diameter of
veins)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Venoconstriction in response to sympathetic nerve stimulation
Sympathetic
nerves stimulated
Smooth
muscle
contracts
Vein
constricts
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.12 3
Module 11.12 Review
a. Define varicose veins.
b. Why are valves located in veins, but not in
arteries?
c. How is blood flow maintained in veins to counter
the pull of gravity?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Circulatory Circuits (11.13)
• Pulmonary circuit
• Carries deoxygenated blood from right ventricle to lungs
• Returns oxygenated blood from lungs to left atrium
• Blood from left ventricle enters systemic circuit
• Transports oxygenated blood to all organs and tissues
• Returns deoxygenated blood to right atrium
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Schematic overview of the pattern of circulation
Brain
Systemic
circuit
(veins)
Upper limbs
Pulmonary
Pulmonary
circuit
circuit
(veins)
(arteries)
Systemic
circuit
(arteries)
Lungs
RA
LA
Left
Right ventricle
ventricle
Kidneys
Spleen
Liver
Digestive
organs
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Gonads
Lower limbs
Figure 11.13 1
Patterns of Blood Vessel Organization (11.13)
1. Right and left symmetry
•
Peripheral distribution of arteries and veins on body’s right and left
sides generally identical
•
Exception in largest vessels near the heart
2. One vessel but many names
•
Single vessel changes names as crosses anatomical boundaries,
allowing for accurate anatomical descriptions
•
Example: external iliac artery becomes femoral artery
3. Redundant supply and drainage to tissues and organs
•
Anastomoses between adjacent arteries or veins reduce impact of
occlusion (blockage) of single blood vessel
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Pulmonary Vessels (11.13)
• Pulmonary trunk, large artery coming out of right ventricle
that branches into:
• Right and left pulmonary arteries that branch into:
• Smaller arteries and pulmonary arterioles supplying:
• Alveolar capillaries around alveoli (air pockets) where gas
exchange occurs
• Oxygenated blood returns along small venules that join to
form:
• Pulmonary veins (two right and two left) that drain into the
left atrium
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Pulmonary circuit
Aortic arch
Ascending aorta
Pulmonary trunk
Superior vena cava
Left lung
Right lung
Left
pulmonary
arteries
Left
pulmonary
veins
Right
pulmonary
arteries
Right
pulmonary
veins
Alveolus
Capillary
Inferior vena cava
Descending aorta
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.13 3
Module 11.13 Review
a. Identify the two circulatory circuits of the
cardiovascular system.
b. Briefly describe the three major patterns of blood
vessel organization.
c. Trace the path of a drop of blood through the
lungs, beginning at the right ventricle and ending
at the left atrium.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Systemic Circulation Systems (11.14)
• Systemic arterial system
• All vessels originate from aorta
• Most arteries paired (left and right)
• Systemic venous system – all vessels drain into:
• Superior vena cava (from head, chest, and upper
limbs)
• Inferior vena cava (from all structures inferior to
diaphragm)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview of the systemic arterial system
Vertebral
Common carotid
Subclavian
Brachiocephalic trunk
Axillary
Ascending aorta
Brachial
Aortic arch
Descending aorta
Diaphragm
Celiac trunk
Renal
Gonadal
Lumbar
Radial
Ulnar
Common iliac
Internal iliac
Digital
arteries
External iliac
Palmar
arches
Deep femoral
Femoral
Popliteal
Posterior tibial
Fibular
Anterior tibial
Dorsalis pedis
Plantar arch
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.14 1
Arrangement of Arteries and Veins (11.14)
• Major veins in neck and limbs
• Arteries located deep beneath skin for protection
• Usually two sets of peripheral veins
• One deep
• One superficial
• Important for controlling body temperature
• Hot weather, venous blood in superficial veins to allow
heat loss
• Cold weather, venous blood in deep veins to minimize
heat loss
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview of the systemic venous system
Vertebral
External jugular
Internal jugular
Subclavian
Brachiocephalic
Axillary
Cephalic
Brachial
Basilic
Median cubital
Radial
Median antebrachial
Ulnar
Palmar venous
arches
Digital veins
Great saphenous
Superior vena cava
Inferior vena cava
Diaphragm
Renal
Gonadal
Lumbar
Common iliac
Internal iliac
External iliac
Deep femoral
Femoral
Popliteal
Small saphenous
Fibular
Plantar venous arch
Dorsal venous arch
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Posterior tibial
Anterior tibial
KEY
Superficial veins
Deep veins
Figure 11.14 2
Module 11.14 Review
a. Name the two large veins that collect blood from
the systemic circuit.
b. Identify the largest artery in the body.
c. Besides containing valves, cite another major
difference between the arterial and venous
systems.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Branches of the Aortic Arch (11.15)
•
Aorta arises from base of left ventricle
•
Divided into ascending aorta, aortic arch,
descending aorta
•
Aortic arch branches into three elastic arteries
1. Brachiocephalic trunk
•
Branches into right subclavian artery and right
common carotid artery
2. Left common carotid artery
3. Left subclavian artery
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Subclavian Artery and Branches (11.15)
• In thoracic cavity, branches of subclavian artery
are:
• Internal thoracic artery supplying pericardium and
anterior chest wall
• Vertebral artery supplying brain and spinal cord
• After passing superior border of first rib,
subclavian becomes:
• Axillary artery
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Subclavian Artery and Branches (11.15)
• When the axillary artery enters the arm it's called
the brachial artery
• Branches include deep brachial artery (to deep posterior
structures) and ulnar collateral arteries (to elbow areas)
• In the forearm, the brachial artery branches into:
• Radial artery
• Ulnar artery
• Radial and ulnar arteries fuse to form superficial and
deep palmar arches that branch into digital arteries
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Arteries of the chest and upper limb
Start
Branches of the Aortic Arch
Brachiocephalic trunk
The Right Subclavian Artery
Vertebral and internal thoracic
arteries branch off subclavian
artery
Arteries of the Arm
Left common Left subclavian
carotid artery artery
Vertebral
Internal
thoracic
Axillary
Deep
brachial
Aortic arch
Heart
Brachial
Ulnar
collateral
arteries
Arteries of the Forearm
Deep palmar arch
Superficial palmar arch
Ascending
aorta
Descending
aorta
Radial
Ulnar
Arteries of the Hand
Palmar arches and
digital arteries.
Figure 11.15 1
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Superior Vena Cava Drainage (11.15)
• Veins of the neck draining into the superior vena
cava include:
• External jugular vein
• From superficial structures of head and neck
• Vertebral vein
• From cervical spinal cord, posterior surface of skull
• Internal jugular vein
• From deep structures of head and neck
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Veins of the Hand and Forearm (11.15)
• From the digital veins in the fingers, blood drains
into:
• Deep palmar arch, which drains into:
• Ulnar vein
• Radial vein
• Superficial palmar arch, which drains into:
• Cephalic vein
• Median antebrachial vein
• Basilic vein
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Veins of the Arm and Thoracic Region (11.15)
• The median cubital vein interconnects cephalic and
basilic veins
• Ulnar and radial veins merge to form brachial vein
• Brachial and basilic merge to form axillary vein
• Axillary vein merges with cephalic to form subclavian vein
• Subclavian veins merge with jugular veins to form
brachiocephalic vein
• Also receives blood from vertebral and internal thoracic vein
• Right and left brachiocephalic veins merge to form
superior vena cava
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Veins of the chest and upper limb
Veins of the Neck
External
Vertebral
jugular vein vein
Internal
jugular vein
The Right Subclavian Vein
Junction of axillary vein
and cephalic vein
Brachiocephalic vein
Veins of the Arm
Axillary vein
Cephalic vein
Veins of the Forearm
Superior vena cava
(SVC)
Brachial
Basilic
Median cubital vein
Internal thoracic vein
Junction of ulnar and radial
veins
Median antebrachial vein
Deep palmar arch
Superficial palmar arch
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Cephalic
Radial
Basilic
Ulnar
Veins of the Hand
Digital veins and
palmar venous
arches
KEY
Superficial veins
Deep veins
Start
Figure 11.15 2
Module 11.15 Review
a. Name the two arteries formed by the division of
the brachiocephalic trunk.
b. A blockage of which branch from the aortic arch
would interfere with blood flow to the left arm?
c. Whenever Thor gets angry, a large vein bulges in
the lateral region of his neck. Which vein is this?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Arterial Supply to the Head (11.16)
• Common carotid arteries supply blood to face,
neck, and brain
• External carotid artery supplies neck, esophagus,
pharynx, larynx, lower jaw, cranium, and face
• Internal carotid artery delivers blood to brain and eyes
• Carotid sinus at base of internal carotid artery contains
baroreceptors detecting blood pressure
• Vertebral arteries fuse to form basilar artery at
ventral surface of medulla oblongata
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Arteries of the neck and head
Basilar
Superficial
temporal
Maxillary
Occipital
Branches of
the External
Carotid
Facial
Internal carotid
artery
Lingual
Vertebral artery
External
carotid
Carotid sinus
Common carotid
artery
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Axillary Subclavian Brachiocephalic trunk
Figure 11.16 1
Drainage of Blood from Head (11.16)
• External jugular vein drains maxillary and temporal veins
from cranium, face, lower jaw, neck
• Internal jugular vein drains venous sinuses in cranium
• Exits skull through jugular foramen
• Vertebral vein drains cervical spinal cord and posterior
skull surface
• Passes through transverse foramina of cervical vertebrae
• These three veins merge with subclavian vein to form
brachiocephalic vein
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Veins of the neck and head
Dural sinuses
draining
the brain
Temporal
Maxillary
Jugular foramen
Tributaries of
the External
Jugular
Facial
Occipital
External
jugular
Vertebral vein
Internal jugular vein
Right brachiocephalic
Left brachiocephalic
Axillary
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Right
Superior
subclavian vena cava
Figure 11.16 2
Module 11.16 Review
a. Name the arterial structure in the neck region
that contains baroreceptors.
b. Identify branches of the external carotid artery.
c. Identify the veins that combine to form the
brachiocephalic vein.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Blood Supply to the Brain (11.17)
•
Internal carotid arteries supply anterior half of
cerebrum
•
Each internal carotid artery divides into:
1. Ophthalmic artery to the eyes
2. Anterior cerebral artery to frontal and parietal lobes
3. Middle cerebral artery to midbrain and lateral brain
surfaces
•
Vertebral and basilar arteries supply rest of brain
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lateral view of arteries of the brain
Middle
cerebral
Anterior
cerebral
Posterior
cerebral
Ophthalmic
Basilar
Vertebral
Cerebral arterial circle
Internal carotid
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.17 1
Cerebral Arterial Circle (11.17)
• Internal carotid arteries and basilar artery
interconnected in ring-shaped anastomosis
• Cerebral arterial circle or circle of Willis
• Allows redundant blood supply from both major blood
sources
• Basilar artery divides into posterior cerebral arteries,
which branch into posterior communicating arteries
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Inferior view of arteries of the brain
Anterior
cerebral
Ophthalmic
Internal
carotid (cut)
Middle
cerebral
Pituitary
gland
Posterior
cerebral
Cerebellar
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Anterior
communicating
Anterior
cerebral
Posterior
communicating
Posterior
cerebral
Cerebral
Arterial
Circle
Basilar
Vertebral
Figure 11.17 2
Blood Drainage from the Brain (11.17)
• Superficial cerebral veins and small veins of brain stem
drain into dural sinuses
• Superior sagittal sinus (largest dural sinus)
• Great cerebral vein drains deep cerebral veins
• Drains into straight sinus
• Other small veins drain into cavernous sinus
• Some blood from dural sinuses drains into vertebral vein
• Internal jugular vein starts as convergence of:
• Transverse sinuses, straight sinus, superior sagittal sinus
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lateral view of brain showing venous distribution
Superior sagittal sinus
Superior
sagittal sinus
Inferior
sagittal sinus
Straight sinus
Cavernous sinus
Occipital sinus
Right transverse
sinus
Great
cerebral vein
Internal
jugular vein
Vertebral vein
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 11.17 3
Inferior view of brain showing venous distribution
Superior sagittal
sinus (cut)
Cavernous
sinus
Internal
jugular
Cerebral veins
Petrosal
sinus
Cerebellar
veins
Straight sinus
Occipital sinus
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sigmoid
sinus
Transverse
sinus
Figure 11.17 4
Module 11.17 Review
a. Name the veins that drain the dural sinuses of
the brain.
b. Name the three branches of the internal carotid
artery and the structures they supply.
c. Describe the structure and function of the
cerebral arterial circle.
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Descending Aorta (11.18)
• Divided by diaphragm into:
• Thoracic aorta with branches
• Bronchial arteries to lung tissue
• Esophageal arteries to esophagus
• Mediastinal arteries to mediastinum
• Pericardial arteries to pericardium
• Intercostal arteries to chest muscles
• Phrenic arteries to diaphragm
• Abdominal aorta with several branches
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Major arteries of the trunk
Aortic arch
Internal thoracic
Thoracic aorta
Somatic
Branches of the
Thoracic Aorta
Intercostal arteries
Phrenic arteries
Diaphragm
Visceral
Branches of the
Thoracic Aorta
Bronchial arteries
Esophageal arteries
Mediastinal arteries
Pericardial arteries
Celiac trunk
Adrenal
Renal
Gonadal
Lumbar
Common iliac
Branches of
the celiac
trunk
Superior
mesenteric
Abdominal
aorta
Inferior
mesenteric
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Figure 11.18 1
Major Paired Branches of Abdominal Aorta
(11.18)
• Adrenal arteries
• Supply adrenal glands
• Renal arteries
• Supply the kidneys
• Gonadal arteries
• Called testicular arteries in males
• Called ovarian arteries in females
• Lumbar arteries
• Supply vertebrae, spinal cord, and abdominal wall
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Blood Drainage into Superior and Inferior
Venae Cavae (11.18)
• Blood drains from thorax into superior vena cava
through
• Azygos vein
• Hemiazygos vein
• Drainage into azygos and hemiazygos from:
•
•
•
•
Intercostal veins draining muscles of chest wall
Esophageal veins draining esophagus
Bronchial veins draining passageways of lungs
Mediastinal veins draining mediastinal area
• Blood from areas inferior to diaphragm drains into
inferior vena cava
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Veins of the abdomen and chest
Brachiocephalic
Superior
vena cava
Internal
thoracic
Inferior
vena cava
Hepatics
Phrenic
Adrenal
Renal
Gonadal
The Azygos and
Hemiazygos
Veins
Azygos vein
Hemiazygos vein
Branches of
azygos and
hemiazygous
veins
Lumbar
Common iliac
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Figure 11.18 2
Major Tributaries of the Inferior Vena Cava
(11.18)
• Lumbar veins drain spinal cord and muscles of body
wall
• Gonadal veins
• Ovarian veins drain ovaries
• Testicular veins drain testes
• Hepatic veins drain sinusoids (channels) of liver
• Renal veins collect blood from kidneys
• Adrenal veins drain adrenal glands
• Phrenic veins drain diaphragm
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Module 11.18 Review
a. Which vessel collects most of the venous blood
inferior to the diaphragm?
b. Identify the major tributaries of the inferior vena
cava.
c. Grace is in an automobile accident, and her
celiac trunk is ruptured. Which organs will be
affected most directly by this injury?
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Blood Supply to Abdominal Viscera (11.19)
•
Unpaired branches off abdominal aorta
1. Celiac trunk
• Which divides into:
• Common hepatic artery
• Supplying liver, stomach, gallbladder, duodenum
• Left gastric artery
• Supplying stomach
• Splenic artery
• Supplying spleen, stomach, and pancreas
2. Superior mesenteric artery
• Supplying pancreas, duodenum, small and large intestines
3. Inferior mesenteric artery
• Supplying terminal portions of colon and rectum
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Arteries supplying the abdominopelvic organs
The Celiac Trunk
Common hepatic artery
Left gastric artery
Splenic artery
Celiac trunk
Right gastric artery
Spleen
Ascending colon
Superior Mesenteric
Artery
Inferior Mesenteric
Artery
Descending colon
Figure 11.19 1
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Drainage of Abdominal Viscera (11.19)
•
Hepatic portal vein formed by fusion of:
1. Superior mesenteric vein
•
Carries largest volume of blood
•
Collects blood from stomach, small intestine, anterior
2/3 of large intestine
2. Inferior mesenteric vein
•
Collects blood from posterior 1/3 of large intestine and
rectum
3. Splenic vein
•
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Collects blood from stomach, spleen, pancreas
The hepatic portal system
Inferior
vena cava
Hepatic
Left gastric
Right gastric
Cystic
Hepatic portal
Superior
Mesenteric Vein
Splenic Vein
Descending colon
Inferior
Mesenteric Vein
Ascending
colon
Rectum
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Figure 11.19 2
Module 11.19 Review
a. List the unpaired branches of the abdominal
aorta that supply blood to the visceral organs.
b. Identify the three veins that merge to form the
hepatic portal vein.
c. Identify the branches of the celiac trunk.
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Blood Supply to Lower Limbs (11.20)
• Abdominal aorta splits into right and left common
iliac arteries, each divides into:
• Internal iliac artery supplying pelvic organs, medial
thigh
• External iliac artery
• As it enters lower limb, external iliac artery becomes
femoral artery supplying anterior and lateral skin and
deep muscles of thigh
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Blood Supply to Lower Limbs (11.20)
• Femoral artery becomes popliteal artery posterior
to knee joint, branching into:
• Posterior and anterior tibial arteries
• Fibular artery branches off posterior tibial artery
• Vessels in foot include dorsalis pedis, dorsal arch,
plantar arch and digital arteries in toes
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Arteries of the lower limb
Anterior View
Common iliac
External iliac
Posterior View
Internal Iliac
and Its Branches
Right external
iliac
Femoral artery
Femoral artery
branches
Femoral
Popliteal artery
Descending
genicular
artery
Popliteal
Anterior tibial
Posterior tibial
Anterior tibial
Posterior tibial
Fibular
Arteries of the Foot
Fibular
artery
Dorsalis pedis
Dorsal arch
Plantar arch
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Figure 11.20 1
Lower Limb Blood Drainage (11.20)
• Plantar venous arch delivers blood to deep veins:
anterior tibial, posterior tibial, and fibular veins
• Dorsal venous arch collects from superior foot surface
and digital veins
• Drains into superficial veins: great saphenous vein and small
saphenous vein
• Small saphenous vein merges with popliteal vein at knee to
form femoral vein
• Great saphenous vein joins femoral vein
• Femoral vein becomes external iliac vein in pelvic cavity
• Internal iliac vein drains pelvic organs
• Joins with external iliac vein forming common iliac vein
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Veins of the lower limb
Anterior View
Common iliac
External iliac
Internal iliac
Femoral
Posterior View
External iliac
vein
Femoral
Great saphenous
Popliteal
Femoral vein
Small saphenous
Anterior tibial
Posterior tibial
Fibular
Plantar
venous arch
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Dorsal
venous arch
Digital
Figure 11.20 2
Module 11.20 Review
a. Name the first two divisions of the common iliac
artery.
b. The plantar venous arch carries blood to which
three veins?
c. A blood clot that blocks the popliteal vein would
interfere with blood flow in which other veins?
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