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Harrapan or Indus Valley Cultures:
Harrapa and Mohenjo-Daro
Harappa
Harappa (Urdu ‫ہڑپہ‬, HIndi: हड़प्पा) is a city in Punjab, NE Pakistan, about 22 miles
This ancient settlement existed from about 3300 BCE and is believed to have had
as many as 40,000 residents—considered large for its time. Although the
Harappa Culture extended well beyond the bounds of present day Pakistan, its
centers were in Sindh and the Punjab.
The two greatest cities of Indus Valley civilization (Harappan culture) are MohnjoDaro and Harappa which emerged ca. 2600 BCE along the Indus River valley in
Punjab and Sindh. Mohenjo-Daro means “mound of the dead” but the civilization
extends along northern India to the Himalyan foothills and south toward Gujarat.
Urban civilizations sustained by agricultural production and trade. Lived in flatroofed brick houses. Distinctive seals were used for identification of property and
shipment of goods. Used copper and bronze but not iron. Cotton was woven and
dyed for clothing. Wheat, rice and a variety of vegetables were cultivated and
the humped bull domesticated. Wheel-made potteryhas been found at all major
sites. Can’t read their writing system, don’t know if a priestly class or oligarchy in
authority.
Seals: carved in steatite pressed into clay - undecipherable to
date...unknown if it reflects proto-Dravidian or proto-Sanskrit
Hinduism
Hinduism is an ancient religion whose origins predate recorded history. It has no single human founder, and it has
developed over thousands of years. Its most sacred scriptures are the Vedas, which means "knowledge" in
Sanskrit, the ritual language of Hinduism. The Vedas began as an oral tradition, and modern scholars have
speculated that they date back as far as 6500 B.C.E. Historians believe that the Vedas were written down around
1000 B.C.E. or earlier. Other elements of Hinduism - such as sacred symbols and the worship of certain Gods can also be traced back to the seventh century B.C.E.
The word Hindu was first used by the ancient Persians to describe the practices and beliefs of people who lived
east of the river Sindhu, or the Indus River. Hindus call their religion "Sanatana Dharma" (the eternal religion) or
"Vedic Dharma" (the religion of knowledge).
Over the millennia Hinduism has continued to evolve, and in modern times it incorporates a wide variety of religious
beliefs and practices. Hinduism has historically been tolerant of other religions, believing that all religions can be
legitimate paths to God. As of 1997, there were nearly one billion Hindus in the world, more than 900 million of
them living in India.Hinduism is an ancient religion whose origins predate recorded history. It has no single human
founder, and it has developed over thousands of years. Its most sacred scriptures are the Vedas, which means
"knowledge" in Sanskrit, the ritual language of Hinduism. The Vedas began as an oral tradition, and modern
scholars have speculated that they date back as far as 6500 B.C.E. Historians believe that the Vedas were written
down around 1000 B.C.E. or earlier. Other elements of Hinduism - such as sacred symbols and the worship of
certain Gods - can also be traced back to the seventh century B.C.E.
The word Hindu was first used by the ancient Persians to describe the practices and beliefs of people who lived east of the
river Sindhu, or the Indus River. Hindus call their religion "Sanatana Dharma" (the eternal religion) or "Vedic Dharma" (the
religion of knowledge).
Over the millennia Hinduism has continued to evolve, and in modern times it incorporates a wide variety of religious beliefs
and practices. Hinduism has historically been tolerant of other religions, believing that all religions can be legitimate paths to
God. As of 1997, there were nearly one billion Hindus in the world, more than 900 million of them living in India.
Brahman: the name of the supreme force - creates, maintains destroys and re-creates the universe in a never-ending cycle. Everything in
the world, including the human soul (atman) is a part of Brahman. The atman is both separate from and one with Brahman. A Hindu
spiritual goal is to unite his/her soul with Brahman
gods: Hindus believe in multiple gods who represent the countless different qualities and powers of Brahman. some HIndu gods have
human-like personalities and others represent such things as success, good luck, and war. Each Hindu person or family may be especially
devoted to a particular god or goddess. Three of the most important gods are Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma (not to be confused with
Brahman) but also Devi
dharma: means to “hold or support” Part of dharma related to sacred (holy) duty or moral responsibility. It is the system of rules and
values Hindus follow in their everyday life. Another way to think of dharma is as “the right thing to do.” in any situation. Indus believe in a
universal dharma that includes values all Hindus accept and practice, such as nonviolence. However, Hindus also believe in individual
dharma that they should follow. People’s dharma are determined by different things such as personality, age, sex, and inherited social
class, or varna. Hinduism teaches that when people follow their dharma, they contribute to the harmony and balance of society and the
universe.
karma: the total good and bad actions a human soul (atman) carries with it from life to life. They believe that when people die, the soul
leaves the body and is reborn into another body. Hinduism teaches that people’s good and bad actions in one life influence their destiny in
future lives. Karma determines whether a soul is reborn as a human or an animal, into a rich family or a poor one, and some of the things
a person will experience in each lifetime. For example, if you steal in this life you will be robbed in a future life, harm an animal and may be
reborn as an animal.
samsara: is the continuous cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. The process of rebirth is sometimes referred to as reincarnation. The goal of
a Hindu’s life is to be released from samsara and united with Brahman. Hindus call this release moksha and it is achieved after a person’s
soul has lived through many lifetimes. HIndus achieve moksha by following a path of dharma, balancing thier karma (both good and bad
actions), worshipping the gods faithfully, and having a direct and personal experience of Brahman by following certain spiritual practices.
(CNN) -- A man, incensed that a 6-year-old girl chose to walk through a path reserved for upper caste villagers, pushed her into burning embers,
police in north India said Wednesday. She was seriously burned. Dalits, or "untouchables," are victims of discrimination in India despite laws aimed
at eliminating prejudice. The girl is a Dalit, or an "untouchable," according to India's traditional caste system. India's constitution outlaws castebased discrimination, and barriers have broken down in large cities. Prejudice, however, persists in some rural areas of the country. The girl was
walking with her mother down a path in the city of Mathura when she was accosted by a man in his late teens, said police superintendent R.K.
Chaturvedi. "He scolded them both and pushed her," Chaturvedi said. The girl fell about 3 to 4 feet into pile of burning embers by the side of the
road. The girl remained in critical condition Wednesday. The man confessed to the crime and was charged with attempted murder, Chaturvedi said.
The assault took place in India's Uttar Pradesh state, about 150 km (93 miles) south of Delhi. The state is governed by Mayawati, a woman who goes
by one name and is India's most powerful Dalit politician. Her Bahujan Samaj Party seeks to get more political representation for Dalits, who are
considered so low in the social order that they don't even rank among the four classes that make up the caste system. Hindus believe there are five
main groups of people, four of which sprang from the body of the first man. The Brahmin class comes from the mouth. They are the priests and holy
men, the most elevated of the castes. Next is the Ksatriyas, the kings, warriors and soldiers created from the arms. The Vaisyas come from the
thighs. They are the merchants and traders of society. And the Sudras, or laborers, come from the feet. The last group is the Dalits, or the
"untouchables." They're considered too impure to have come from the primordial being. Untouchables are often forced to work in menial jobs. They
drink from separate wells. They use different entry ways, coming and going from buildings. They number about 250 million in India, about 25 percent
of the population, according to the Colorado, U.S.-based Dalit Freedom Network. "Dalits are seen to pollute higher caste people if they come in
touch with them, hence the 'untouchables,'" the group says on its Web site. "If a higher caste Hindu is touched by, or even had a Dalit's shadow fall
across them, they consider themselves to be polluted and have to go through a rigorous series of rituals to be cleansed." Recent weeks has seen a
rise in violence against Dalits in Uttar Pradesh. (May 2008)
India’s Sikh population adheres to a religion that combines aspects of Hinduism and Islam while rejecting negative
aspects (such as the caste system) of both. This religion was created 500 years ago to unite warring Hindus and
Muslims. The majority of its followers are in the Punjab region of India and Pakistan. During colonialism, many Sikhs
supported British administration and were rewarded with jobs and service in the military
Hindu art, unlike Buddhist art, shows the human figure curved, voluptuous and filled with potential motion. Parvati below is shaped and
dressed (only in jewelry to emphasize her sexuality and a crown) like the Yakshi. Ganesha, the elephant-headed god in the center, is corpulent,
the result of "good living." Vishnu on the right is portrayed with a fit, but soft body, and with four arms to show his many powers.
Standing Parvati,
10th Century ce, India, T
amil Nadu, Tanjore region.
Bronze, 27 3/8" high.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Ganesha," stone figure, 13th Century ce, is
the son of Parvati and Shiva, and is
considered the provider of success,
prosperity and good living. Ganesha is
one of the most popular of the Hindu
deities.
Standing Vishnu, 10th Century ce, India,
Tamil Nadu, Tanjore region. Bronze, H. 33"
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
The body types of the figures below are intended to be sensual. Indian art from its very beginning in the Indus Valley already portrayed a soft and sensual
human figure. Ancient beliefs in India, which later infused both Buddhism and Hinduism, understood the human body as an aesthetic form second only to the
deities, and human sexuality as a metaphor for the union of the human soul with the divine.
The "Goddess Durga" vanquishing the
"buffalo demon" from the 13th Century.
Yashoda and Krishna," 14th Century, from
India, Karnataha. Copper, 13 1/8" high.
Four-armed Durga," late 9th Century, India,
Kashmir. Stone, 12 3/8" high.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Shiva Nataraja
Lord of the Dance
Ramayana, ca 400 BCE
Valmiki
(revered as the first poet of Hinduism)
24,000 verses, seven books, 500 cantos
explores the story of human existence and the
concept of dharma. Prince Rama’s journey and his
wife, Sita, who is kidnapped by the demon king of
Lanka, Ravana. He is added by his brother
Lakshmana and the monkey hero, Hanuman.
The other major Sanskrit epic: Mahabharata has
74,000 verses...one of the world’s longest epic
poems. The Bhagavad Gita (book 6) Krishna
advises and teaches prince Arjuna when he is
ridden with doubt) ...
Rama (right) seated on the shoulders of Hanuman, battles the demon-king Ravana.
Siddhartha Gautama
(563-483 BCE)
There was a small country in what is now southern Nepal that was ruled by a clan
called the Shakyas. The head of this clan, and the king of this country, was named
Shuddodana Gautama, and his wife was the beautiful Mahamaya. Mahamaya was
expecting her first born. She had had a strange dream in which a baby elephant had
blessed her with his trunk, which was understood to be a very auspicious sign to say
the least.
As was the custom of the day, when the time came near for Queen Mahamaya to have
her child, she traveled to her father's kingdom for the birth. But during the long journey,
her birth pains began. In the small town of Lumbini, she asked her handmaidens to
assist her to a nearby grove of trees for privacy. One large tree lowered a branch to
her to serve as a support for her delivery. They say the birth was nearly painless,
even though the child had to be delivered from her side. After, a gentle rain fell on the
mother and the child to cleanse them.
It is said that the child was born fully awake. He could speak, and told his mother he
had come to free all mankind from suffering. He could stand, and he walked a short
distance in each of the four directions. Lotus blossoms rose in his footsteps. They
named him Siddhartha, which means "he who has attained his goals." Sadly,
Mahamaya died only seven days after the birth. After that Siddhartha was raised by
his mother’s kind sister, Mahaprajapati.
At the age of 29, Siddhartha came to realize that he could not be happy living as he had
been. He had discovered suffering, and wanted more than anything to discover how
one might overcome suffering. After kissing his sleeping wife and newborn son Rahula
goodbye, he snuck out of the palace with his squire Chandara and his favorite horse
Kanthaka. He gave away his rich clothing, cut his long hair, and gave the horse to
Chandara and told him to return to the palace. He studied for a while with two famous
gurus of the day, but found their practices lacking.
He then began to practice the austerities and self-mortifications practiced by a group of
five ascetics. For six years, he practiced. The sincerity and intensity of his practice were
so astounding that, before long, the five ascetics became followers of Siddhartha. But
the answers to his questions were not forthcoming. He redoubled his efforts, refusing
food and water, until he was in a state of near death.
One day, a peasant girl named Sujata saw this starving monk and took pity on
him. She begged him to eat some of her milk-rice. Siddhartha then realized that these
extreme practices were leading him nowhere, that in fact it might be better to find some
middle way between the extremes of the life of luxury and the life of selfmortification. So he ate, and drank, and bathed in the river. The five ascetics saw him
and concluded that Siddhartha had given up the ascetic life and taken to the ways of
the flesh, and left him.
In the town of Bodh Gaya, Siddhartha decided that he would sit under a certain fig tree
as long as it would take for the answers to the problem of suffering to come. He sat
there for many days, first in deep concentration to clear his mind of all distractions, then
in mindfulness meditation, opening himself up to the truth. He began, they say, to recall
all his previous lives, and to see everything that was going on in the entire universe. On
the full moon of May, with the rising of the morning star, Siddhartha finally understood
the answer to the question of suffering and became the Buddha, which means “he who
is awake.”
It is said that Mara, the evil one, tried to prevent this great occurrence. He first tried to
frighten Siddhartha with storms and armies of demons. Siddhartha remained
completely calm. Then he sent his three beautiful daughters to tempt him, again to no
avail. Finally, he tried to ensnare Siddhartha in his own ego by appealing to his
pride. That, too, failed. Siddhartha, having conquered all temptations, touched the
ground with one hand and asked the earth to be his witness.
Siddhartha, now the Buddha, remained seated under the tree -- which we
call the bodhi tree -- for many days longer. It seemed to him that this
knowledge he had gained was far too difficult to communicate to
others. Legend has it that Brahma, king of the gods, convinced Buddha to
teach, saying that some of us perhaps have only a little dirt in our eyes and
could awaken if we only heard his story. Buddha agreed to teach.
At Sarnath near Benares, about one hundred miles from Bodh Gaya, he
came across the five ascetics he had practiced with for so long. There, in a
deer park, he preached his first sermon, which is called “setting the wheel of
the teaching in motion.” He explained to them the Four Noble Truths and
the Eightfold Path. They became his very first disciples and the beginnings
of the Sangha or community of monks.
Over time, he was approached by members of his family, including his wife,
son, father, and aunt. His son became a monk and is particularly
remembered in a sutra based on a conversation between father and son on
the dangers of lying. His father became a lay follower. Because he was
saddened by the departures of his son and grandson into the monastic life,
he asked Buddha to make it a rule that a man must have the permission of
his parents to become a Image:IndianBuddha11.JPGmonk. Buddha obliged
him.
His aunt and wife asked to be permitted into the Sangha, which was
originally composed only of men. The culture of the time ranked women far
below men in importance, and at first it seemed that permitting women to
enter the community would weaken it. But the Buddha relented, and his
aunt and wife became the first Buddhist nuns.
The Buddha said that it didn’t matter what a person’s status in the world
was, or what their background or wealth or nationality might be. All were
capable of enlightenment, and all were welcome into the Sangha. The first
ordained Buddhist monk, Upali, had been a barber, yet he was ranked
higher than monks who had been kings, only because he had taken his
vows earlier than they!
Buddha had achieved his enlightenment at the age of 35. He would teach throughout northeast India for another 45
years. When the Buddha was 80 years old, he told his friend and cousin Ananda that he would be leaving them
soon. And so it came to be that in Kushinagara, not a hundred miles from his homeland, he ate some spoiled food
and became very ill. He went into a deep meditation under a grove of sala trees and died. His last words were...
Impermanent are all created things;
Strive on with awareness.
Buddhist Symbols
Since the making of human images of the Buddha was considered sacrilegious for a long time, Buddhist visual art has produced
an elaborate vocabulary of symbolic and iconic forms of expressions. A great variety of Buddhist symbols is found in temples and
in Buddhist visual art and literature. The following eight figures are among the more common ones. The lotus, the wheel, and the
stupa can be seen in almost every Buddhist temple. One may understand these symbols as visual mantras. Contemplating these
figures is an exercise in meditation to establish inner contact with the aspect that is represented.
Lotus Flower
Padma - Symbol of
Purity. Can be of any
colour except blue.
Chattra
A parasol - protection
against all evil; high rank.
Dharmachakra
The wheel of the law.
The eight spokes
represent the
eightfold path.
Dhvaja
Banner - the victory of
the Buddha's teachings.
Stupa
The stupa is a symbolic
grave monument where
relics or the ashes of a holy
monk are kept. It also
symbolizes the universe.
Deer
The deer -usually in
pairs- symbolizes the
first sermon of the
Buddha which was
held in the deer park
of Benares.
Triratana
The three jewels - the
Buddha, the Dhamma,
and the Sangha.
Naga
The snake king. Vestige
of pre-Buddhist fertility
rituals and protector of
the Buddha and the
Dhamma.
Mudras
Mudras
Images of the Buddha were produced from the fifth century onwards. The sacred nature of the representation is reflected in the artistic
goal of creating an aura of equanimity, perfection, and holiness. The large number of rules governing the execution of a portrayal or a
statue require an erudite understanding of Buddhist symbolism. Any Buddha figure made by a skilled artist exhibits a multitude of
characteristics that communicate subtle meanings and intentions to the viewer. The most important of these characteristics are perhaps
the mudras, or hand gestures, of the Buddha. These well-defined gestures have a fixed meaning throughout all styles and periods of
Buddha images.
Bhumisparsa Mudra
Touching the earth as
Gautama did, to invoke
the earth as witness to
the truth of his words.
Tarjani Mudra
Threat, warning. The
extended index finger
is pointed at the
opponent.
Varada Mudra
Fulfilment of all
wishes; the gesture of
charity.
Namaskara Mudra
Gesture of greeting,
prayer, and
adoration. Buddhas
no longer make this
gesture because they
do not have to show
devotion to anything.
Dhyana Mudra
The gesture of absolute
balance, of meditation. The
hands are relaxed in the
lap, and the tips of the
thumbs and fingers touch
each other. When depicted
with a begging bowl this is
a sign of the head of an
order.
Jnana Mudra
Teaching. The hand
is held at chest level
and the thumb and
index finger again
form the Wheel of
Law.
Abhaya Mudra
Gesture of
reassurance, blessing,
and protection. "Do not
fear."
Karana Mudra
Gesture with which
demons are
expelled.
Dharmachakra Mudra
The gesture of teaching
usually interpreted as
turning the Wheel of Law.
The hands are held level
with the heart, the
thumbs and index fingers
form circles.
Ksepana Mudra
Two hands together in
the gesture of
'sprinkling' the nectar
of immortality.
Vitarka Mudra
Intellectual
argument,
discussion. The
circle formed by the
thumb and index
finger is the sign of
the Wheel of Law
Uttarabodhi Mudra
Two hands placed
together above the
head with the index
fingers together and
the other fingers
intertwined. The
gesture of supreme
enlightenment.
Sanchi
The Four Noble Truths
1. Life means suffering.
To live means to suffer, because the human nature is not perfect and neither is the world we live in. During our lifetime, we inevitably have to
endure physical suffering such as pain, sickness, injury, tiredness, old age, and eventually death; and we have to endure psychological
suffering like sadness, fear, frustration, disappointment, and depression. Although there are different degrees of suffering and there are also
positive experiences in life that we perceive as the opposite of suffering, such as ease, comfort and happiness, life in its totality is imperfect
and incomplete, because our world is subject to impermanence. This means we are never able to keep permanently what we strive for, and just
as happy moments pass by, we ourselves and our loved ones will pass away one day, too.
2. The origin of suffering is attachment.
The origin of suffering is attachment to transient things and the ignorance thereof. Transient things do not only include the physical objects
that surround us, but also ideas, and -in a greater sense- all objects of our perception. Ignorance is the lack of understanding of how our mind
is attached to impermanent things. The reasons for suffering are desire, passion, ardour, pursuit of wealth and prestige, striving for fame and
popularity, or in short: craving and clinging. Because the objects of our attachment are transient, their loss is inevitable, thus suffering will
necessarily follow. Objects of attachment also include the idea of a "self" which is a delusion, because there is no abiding self. What we call
"self" is just an imagined entity, and we are merely a part of the ceaseless becoming of the universe.
3. The cessation of suffering is attainable.
The cessation of suffering can be attained through nirodha. Nirodha means the unmaking of sensual craving and conceptual attachment. The
third noble truth expresses the idea that suffering can be ended by attaining dispassion. Nirodha extinguishes all forms of clinging and
attachment. This means that suffering can be overcome through human activity, simply by removing the cause of suffering. Attaining and
perfecting dispassion is a process of many levels that ultimately results in the state of Nirvana. Nirvana means freedom from all worries,
troubles, complexes, fabrications and ideas. Nirvana is not comprehensible for those who have not attained it.
4. The path to the cessation of suffering.
There is a path to the end of suffering - a gradual path of self-improvement, which is described more detailed in the Eightfold Path. It is the
middle way between the two extremes of excessive self-indulgence (hedonism) and excessive self-mortification (asceticism); and it leads to the
end of the cycle of rebirth. The latter quality discerns it from other paths which are merely "wandering on the wheel of becoming", because
these do not have a final object. The path to the end of suffering can extend over many lifetimes, throughout which every individual rebirth is
subject to karmic conditioning. Craving, ignorance, delusions, and its effects will disappear gradually, as progress is made on the path.
The Noble Eightfold Path describes the way to the end of suffering.
It is a practical guideline to ethical and mental development with the
goal of freeing the individual from attachments and delusions; and it finally leads to understanding the truth about all things. Together with the Four
Noble Truths it constitutes the gist of Buddhism. Great emphasis is put on the practical aspect, because it is only through practice that one can attain
a higher level of existence and finally reach Nirvana. The eight aspects of the path are not to be understood as a sequence of single steps, instead
they are highly interdependent principles that have to be seen in relationship with each other.
1. Right View is the beginning and the end of the path, it simply means to see and to understand things as they really are and to realize the Four
Noble Truth. As such, right view is the cognitive aspect of wisdom. It means to see things through, to grasp the impermanent and imperfect nature of
worldly objects and ideas, and to understand the law of karma and karmic conditioning. Right view is not necessarily an intellectual capacity, just as
wisdom is not just a matter of intelligence. Instead, right view is attained, sustained, and enhanced through all capacities of mind. It begins with the
intuitive insight that all beings are subject to suffering and it ends with complete understanding of the true nature of all things. Since our view of the
world forms our thoughts and our actions, right view yields right thoughts and right actions.
2. Right Intention: While right view refers to the cognitive aspect of wisdom, right intention refers to the volitional aspect, i.e. the kind of mental
energy that controls our actions. Right intention can be described best as commitment to ethical and mental self-improvement. Buddha distinguishes
three types of right intentions: 1. the intention of renunciation, which means resistance to the pull of desire, 2. the intention of good will, meaning
resistance to feelings of anger and aversion, and 3. the intention of harmlessness, meaning not to think or act cruelly, violently, or aggressively, and
to develop compassion.
3. Right Speech is the first principle of ethical conduct in the eightfold path. Ethical conduct is viewed as a guideline to moral discipline, which
supports the other principles of the path. This aspect is not self-sufficient, however, essential, because mental purification can only be achieved
through the cultivation of ethical conduct. The importance of speech in the context of Buddhist ethics is obvious: words can break or save lives, make
enemies or friends, start war or create peace. Buddha explained right speech as follows: 1. to abstain from false speech, especially not to tell
deliberate lies and not to speak deceitfully, 2. to abstain from slanderous speech and not to use words maliciously against others, 3. to abstain from
harsh words that offend or hurt others, and 4. to abstain from idle chatter that lacks purpose or depth. Positively phrased, this means to tell the truth,
to speak friendly, warm, and gently and to talk only when necessary.
4. Right Action is the second ethical principle, right action, involves the body as natural means of expression, as it refers to deeds that involve bodily
actions. Unwholesome actions lead to unsound states of mind, while wholesome actions lead to sound states of mind. Again, the principle is
explained in terms of abstinence: right action means 1. to abstain from harming sentient beings, especially to abstain from taking life (including
suicide) and doing harm intentionally or delinquently, 2. to abstain from taking what is not given, which includes stealing, robbery, fraud,
deceitfulness, and dishonesty, and 3. to abstain from sexual misconduct. Positively formulated, right action means to act kindly and compassionately,
to be honest, to respect the belongings of others, and to keep sexual relationships harmless to others. Further details regarding the concrete
meaning of right action can be found in the Precepts.
5. Right Livelihood livelihood means that one should earn one's living in a righteous way and that wealth should be gained legally and
peacefully. The Buddha mentions four specific activities that harm other beings and that one should avoid for this reason: 1. dealing in
weapons, 2. dealing in living beings (including raising animals for slaughter as well as slave trade and prostitution), 3. working in meat
production and butchery, and 4. selling intoxicants and poisons, such as alcohol and drugs. Furthermore any other occupation that would
violate the principles of right speech and right action should be avoided.
6. Right Effort can be seen as a prerequisite for the other principles of the path. Without effort, which is in itself an act of will, nothing can
be achieved, whereas misguided effort distracts the mind from its task, and confusion will be the consequence. Mental energy is the force
behind right effort; it can occur in either wholesome or unwholesome states. The same type of energy that fuels desire, envy, aggression,
and violence can on the other side fuel self-discipline, honesty, benevolence, and kindness. Right effort is detailed in four types of
endeavors that rank in ascending order of perfection: 1. to prevent the arising of unarisen unwholesome states, 2. to abandon
unwholesome states that have already arisen, 3. to arouse wholesome states that have not yet arisen, and 4. to maintain and perfect
wholesome states already arisen.
7. Right Mindfulness is the controlled and perfected faculty of cognition. It is the mental ability to see things as they are, with clear
consciousness. Usually, the cognitive process begins with an impression induced by perception, or by a thought, but then it does not stay
with the mere impression. Instead, we almost always conceptualize sense impressions and thoughts immediately. We interpret them and
set them in relation to other thoughts and experiences, which naturally go beyond the facticity of the original impression. The mind then
posits concepts, joins concepts into constructs, and weaves those constructs into complex interpretative schemes. All this happens only
half consciously, and as a result we often see things obscured. Right mindfulness is anchored in clear perception and it penetrates
impressions without getting carried away. Right mindfulness enables us to be aware of the process of conceptualization in a way that we
actively observe and control the way our thoughts go. Buddha accounted for this as the four foundations of mindfulness: 1. contemplation
of the body, 2. contemplation of feeling (repulsive, attractive, or neutral), 3. contemplation of the state of mind, and 4. contemplation of the
phenomena.
8. Right Concentration, the eighth principle of the path, right concentration, refers to the development of a mental force that occurs in
natural consciousness, although at a relatively low level of intensity, namely concentration. Concentration in this context is described as
one-pointedness of mind, meaning a state where all mental faculties are unified and directed onto one particular object. Right
concentration for the purpose of the eightfold path means wholesome concentration, i.e. concentration on wholesome thoughts and
actions. The Buddhist method of choice to develop right concentration is through the practice of meditation. The meditating mind focuses
on a selected object. It first directs itself onto it, then sustains concentration, and finally intensifies concentration step by step. Through this
practice it becomes natural to apply elevated levels concentration also in everyday situations.
PRECEPTS: I undertake to observe the precept to abstain from ...
1. ...harming living beings.
2. ...taking things not freely given.
3. ...sexual misconduct.
4. ...false speech.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
...taking untimely meals.
...dancing, singing, music and watching grotesque mime.
...use of garlands, perfumes and personal adornment.
...use of high seats.
...accepting gold or silver.
5. ...intoxicating drinks and drugs causing heedlessness.
The Five Mindfulness Trainings
(according to Thich Nath Hanh, www.plumvillage.org)
-First Training: Aware of the suffering caused by the destruction of life, I am committed to cultivating compassion and learning ways to protect the lives of
people, animals, plants, and minerals. I am determined not to kill, not to let others kill, and not to condone any act of killing in the world, in my thinking, and in
my way of life.
-Second Training: Aware of the suffering caused by exploitation, social injustice, stealing, and oppression, I am committed to cultivate loving kindness and
learn ways to work for the well-being of people, animals, plants, and minerals. I am committed to practice generosity by sharing my time, energy, and material
resources with those who are in real need. I am determined not to steal and not to possess anything that should belong to others. I will respect the property of
others, but I will prevent others from profiting from human suffering or the suffering of other species on Earth.
-Third Training: Aware of the suffering caused by sexual misconduct, I am committed to cultivate responsibility and learn ways to protect the safety and
integrity of individuals, couples, families, and society. I am determined not to engage in sexual relations without love and a long-term commitment. To preserve
the happiness of myself and others, I am determined to respect my commitments and the commitments of others. I will do everything in my power to protect
children from sexual abuse and to prevent couples and families from being broken by sexual misconduct.
-Fourth Training: Aware of the suffering caused by unmindful speech and the inability to listen to others, I am committed to cultivate loving speech and deep
listening in order to bring joy and happiness to others and relieve others of their suffering. Knowing that words can create happiness or suffering, I am
committed to learn to speak truthfully, with words that inspire self-confidence, joy, and hope. I am determined not to spread news that I do not know to be
certain and not to criticize or condemn things of which I am not sure. I will refrain from uttering words that can cause division or discord, or that can cause the
family or the community to break. I will make all efforts to reconcile and resolve all conflicts, however small.
-Fifth Training: Aware of the suffering caused by unmindful consumption, I am committed to cultivate good health, both physical and mental, for myself, my
family, and my society by practicing mindful eating, drinking, and consuming. I am committed to ingest only items that preserve peace, well-being, and joy in my
body, in my consciousness, and in the collective body and consciousness of my family and society. I am determined not to use alcohol or any other intoxicant
or to ingest foods or other items that contain toxins, such as certain TV programs, magazines, books, films, and conversations. I am aware that to damage my
body or my consciousness with these poisons is to betray my ancestors, my parents, my society, and future generations. I will work to transform violence, fear,
anger, and confusion in myself and in society by practicing a diet for myself and for society. I understand that a proper diet is crucial for self-transformation and
for the transformation of society.