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1450- 1750 Review REVOLUTIONS IN THOUGHT AND EXPRESSION Revolutions to Thought and Expression • Crusades opened Christians to Islamic civilizations and trade – Europeans exposed to new developments and history – Leads to four main movements: the Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation, the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment The Renaissance (Rebirth) • After black Death, demand for goods and services increased • Urbanization • Middle class (bankers merchants, and traders emerged) • Influx of money • Use money to study the past Humanism • Medieval Europe- thoughts of salvation and afterlife; earth to be suffered through on the way to heaven • Humanism- person accomplishment and personal happiness. Participation on the “here and now” • Fascination with Greek and Roman concepts of beauty and citizenship • Shift focus to life on Earth and celebration of human achievements Art • The Medici Family: turned Italy into a showcase of architecture and beauty • Michelangelo-painter; Sistine Chapel • Brunelleschi- The dome of the Florence Cathederal • Leonardo da Vinci-painter/ sculptor • Donatello-painter/ sculptor • Van Eyck brothers-Dutch artists • Albrecht Durer- German painter New Techniques • Application of humanistic ideas • Use of light and shadow made figures appear full and real • Autopsies to understand the structure of the human body • Linear perspective – Developed by Tommaso Masaccio and Fillipo Brunelleschi – Gives art three-dimensional quality • Architects get Greek and Roman influence to build domes on cathedrals Art Medieval Times • Humans flat, stiff, and out of proportion • Almost entirely religious • Mostly in cathedrals • Did not try to be “worldly” Renaissance • Used realism to make humans look softer • Religious and secular • Commissioned by religious and secular leaders • Seen in cathedrals, plazas, and public homes • Very worldly Western Writers • [1400s] Johannes Gutenberg invents printing press – Books easy to produce – More affordable – Written in different vernaculars (native languages) – More literate and educated people Books! • • • • • Most were practical or political Machiavelli [1517 C.E.] The Prince Erasmus [late 1500s] In Praise of Folly Sir Thomas More [late 1500s] Utopia William Shakespeare [late 1500s] Venus and Adonis, Julius Caesar, etc Protestant Reformation • Catholic church was a unifying force and intermediary between man and God • Finance projects funded by indulgences – Paper faithful could purchase to reduce time in purgatory – Church maintained power over masses – Angered people; seen as corrupt Martin Luther • [1517] 95 Theses – Frustrations with church practices – Church services should be conducted in local languages (not Latin) • Translated the Bible into German • Believed salvation given by God through grace, not the authorization of the church • Believed the Bible taught self salvation (no need for pope) • Pope Leo X outraged and excommunicated Luther • Followers- Lutherans John Calvin • Calvinism • Predestination- God predetermined ultimate destiny for all people – Those saved known as “Elect” • [1530s]Protestant theocracy in Geneva in Switzerland King Henry VIII • Church of England (Anglican Church) • King did not have authority of pope to annul marriage of Catherine of Aragon • King Henry VIII declared himself head of religious affairs in England – [1534] Act of Supremacy The Counter-Reformation • Catholic Reformation [16th Century] • Led by Spain • Banned the sale of indulgences, consulted more frequently with bishops, trained priests to live the Catholic life, weekly mass mandatory – Regained some lost credibility – “Clarifying the Catholic Church’s position” The Jesuits • Ignatius Loyola • Restoring faith in teachings of Jesus interpreted by the Catholic Church • Self control and moderation • Prayer + good works = salvation • Oratorical and political skills; many appointed by kings to high palace positions The Council of Trent • [1545-1563] • Dictated and defined Catholic interpretation of doctrine • Re-established Latin as language used in worship The Scientific Revolution • Nicolaus Copernicus [1543] On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Sphere – Earth and other celestial bodies revolve around sun: “Heliocentric” – Earth rotates on axis • Galileo [1632] Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World – Showed how Earth revolved on axis and stars distance – Put on trial before Inquisition in Rome – Book put on “The Index”, a list of banned works The Scientific Method • Replaced scholastic method based off of “reasoning” • One had to prove an idea, document it, repeat it, and publish it • Tycho Brahe [1546-1601] built observatory • Francis Bacon [1561-1626] • Johannes Kepler [1571-1630] laws of planetary motion • Sir Isaac Newton [1642-1727] Law of gravity Scientific Revolution • Scientific inquires conducted with practical goals in mind • Produced a larger number of people rejected church’s rigid pronouncements that conflicted with scientific findings – Atheists: No God exists – Deists: God exists, but plays passive role. “God as watchmaker” The Enlightenment • Focused on mankind in relation to government • Social contract: governments formed to meet social and economic needs of people Enlightenment Thinkers • Thomas Hobbes [1588-1679] Leviathan – people greedy and prone to violence; government should preserve peace and stability “at all costs” • John Locke [1632-1704] Two Treatises on Government – Man had unalienable rights (life, liberty, and property), up to government to secure and grant them; people were justified in replacing government if these rights weren’t met • Jean Jacques Rousseau [1712-1778] – All men equal; majority rule; essence of freedom to obey laws that people prescribe for themselves Enlightenment Writers • Voltaire – Religious toleration • Montesquieu – Separation of powers among branches of government Enlightened Monarchs • Ruled absolutely but made attempts to tolerate diversity, increase opportunities for serfs, take on responsibility of rule • Joseph II of Austria • Frederick II of Prussia EUROPEAN EXPLORATION AND EXPANSION: EMPIRES OF THE WIND Portuguese Exploration • Cut out the Muslim middlemen • Advances in ship-building, navigation, and gunpowder allowed for increased sea travel Portuguese Success • Royal family supported exploration • [1488] Bartholomew Dias rounded tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope) • [1497] Vasco de Gama rounded Cape of Good Hope, east African kingdoms, and established trade relations in India Spain vs Portugal • [1492] Christopher Columbus went west and found the Americas • [1494] Portugal and Spain fighting over Americas – Treaty of Tordesillas Explorers • Amerigo Vespucci [1500s]- many explorations of South America; America named after him • Ponce de Leon [1513]- explored Florida for Spain to find fountain of youth • Vasco de Balboa [1513]- laid sight on Pacific Ocean • Ferdinand Magellan [1519]- crew circumnavigated the globe More Explorers • Giovanni da Verrazzano [1524]- explored North American coast for France • Sir Francis Drake [1578] first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe • John Cabot [1597] explored coast of North America for England • Henry Hudson [1609] sailed for Dutch looking for Northwest Passage; made claims around Hudson River Technology that made Exploration Possible • The Sternpost Rudder- better navigation and control of ships • Lateen Sails- sails allowed ships to sail in any direction, regardless of wind • The Astrolabe- measured distance of sun and stars to determine latitude • The Magnetic Compass- determine direction • Three-Masted Caravels- large ships could hold provisions for longer journeys Cortes and the Aztecs • [1519] Hernan Cortes landed on coast of Mexico with 600 men • Hooked up with neighboring people of Aztecs who were willing to help Cortes defeat Aztecs • Montezuma (Aztec Ruler) thought Cortes was a god & brought Cortes gold • Spaniards seized Montezuma and began siege of Tenochtitlan • Control by [1525] Francisco Pizarro • • • • Went for Incan Empire in [1531] 200 men with him Disease + Weapons = success Control of Inca in [1535] Disease • Weapon of mass destruction – Smallpox – Infections new to Americas, no natural resistance to them The Ecomienda System Peninsulares- Spanish officials to govern the colonies Crillos or Creoles- People born in the colonies to Spanish parents Mestizos- European and Native ancestry Mulattos- European and African Native Americans- little or no freedom The Ecomienda System • Viceroys provided peninsulares with land and number of native laborers • Peninsulares protect natives and convert them to Christianity • Reform needed: switch to African slavery The African Slave Trade • Europeans traded guns and goods to African leaders in exchange for slaves • [mid 15th century] Portuguese captured Africans • Demand increased; Europeans kidnapped Africans or pitted groups against each other to control weapons trade The Middle Passage • Middle Passage: sea route from Africa to the Americas – Approx. 13 million Africans took journey – 60% to South America – 35% to Caribbean – 5% to North America • Death rates ~20% on Middle Passage The Columbian Exchange • Transatlantic transfer of animals, plants, diseases, people, technology, and ideas among Europe, the Americas and Africa • Two key products: sugar and silver The Commercial Revolution • Joint- Stock Company- organization created to pool the resources of merchants, distributing the costs and risks and reducing danger for individual investors • Monopolies – The Muscovy Company of England: trade routes to Russia – The Dutch East India Company: trade routes to the spice islands • Mercantilism- country tried not to import more than it exported Asian Trade • Portuguese set up trading post in Goa (west coast of India) and Spice Islands • Dutch formed Dutch East India Company and had raids on Portuguese ships and trading posts. – 1600s, Dutch became biggest power in spice trades • England and France: trading posts in India • China and Japan limited trade with Europeans SPAIN AND PORTUGAL Spain • [1469] King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella get Spanish authority under one house – Supported exploration – Survival and expansion of the Spanish language and culture – Built naval fleet Portuguese • Domination of costal Africa, the Indian Ocean, and Spice Islands • Limited manpower; could not control colonies • Lost colonies to Dutch and British – Faster ships, heavier guns Charles V • [1519] Charles elected Holy Roman Emperor • Held land in France, the Netherlands, Austria, and Germany, plus Spain • Fought for control of Italy and Ottoman Turks for control of eastern Europe – Led to expansion of Ottoman rule • Defended Catholicism against Protestantism • [1556] gave control of Austria and Holy Roman Empire to brother, Ferdinand I • Gave control of Spain, Sicily, the Netherlands to son, Philip II Philip II • Spanish expansion in New World • Continuation of Spanish Inquisition – Led to Catholic Reformation against Protestants – Increase in missionary work in New World • [1581] Dutch (mostly Protestant) revolted and gained independence from Spain ENGLAND England: the Elizabethan Age • King Henry VIII’s daughter, Elizabeth I “Golden Age” • [1558-1603] commercial expansion, exploration, and colonization • Muscovy Company & British East India Company, Drake, first English colonists in Roanoke colony, Shakespeare James I • Elizabeth dies; [1607] James I comes to power • Attempted to institute reforms for Catholics and Puritans • Puritans did not want to accept James I as divine right – Cross the Atlantic… Pilgrims to Plymouth colony Charles I • Son of James I; rose to power in [1625] • Petition of Right: document limiting taxes and forbidding unlawful imprisonment – Charles ignored petition after securing funds he needed; ruled without calling another meeting of parliament for 11 years. Charles I • [1640] Parliament called when Scotland invades England – Know as Long Parliament: limited absolute powers of monarchy – [1641] denied Charles's request for money to fight Irish rebellion Charles I • Charles led troops into House of Commons to arrest some members civil war • Roundheads under Oliver Cromwell to fight king – Defeat armies of Charles I (Cavaliers) – King tried and executed Oliver Cromwell • Rose to power as leader of “English Commonwealth” – Then Lord Protector – Religious intolerance and violence against Catholics. Charles II • Restore a limited monarchy • Stuart Restoration [1660-1688] • Acknowledged rights of the people (esp. religion) – Habeas Corpus Act: protects people from arrests without due process James II • After Charles II • Open Catholic and unpopular; believed in divine right of lings • Glorious Revolution – James II driven from power by Parliament – James II flees to France William and Mary • [1688] replace James II • Protestant rulers of the Netherlands • English Bill of Rights [1689] – Ensured England’s future monarch would be Anglican – Powers would be limited FRANCE France • Began to unify after Hundred Years’ War with strong monarchy • French Protestants (Huguenots) develop during Protestant reformation • Huguenots vs French Catholics • [1598] Henry IV issues Edict of Nantes – toleration France • Henry IV was the first Bourbon king • Cardinal Richelieu: chief advisor to Bourbons – Compromise with Protestants – New bureaucratic class: the noblesse de la robe Louis XIV • 4 years old when he inherited the crown • Cardinal Mazarin(his mom) ruled until he was an adult • Louis XIV nicknamed “Sun king” and “The Most Christian King” – – – – – – Absolute monarch Ruled under divine right “I am the State” Versailles Never called Estates-General Revoked Edict of Nantes (many Huguenots left) War and Succession • Jean Baptise Colbert appointed by Louis XIV to manage royal funds • Wanted to increase size of French empire for business transactions and taxes (French mostly at war) • War of Spanish Succession [1701-1714] – Philip V, Louis XIV’s grandson could rule Spain – Spain couldn’t combine with France – France had to give up territories to England HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE Holy Roman Empire • Located in present day Austria • Geographically dominated but feudal – Local lords – Weakened the empire Holy Roman Empire • Lost parts of Hungary to the Ottoman Turks in the early [16th century] • The Thirty Years’ War [1618-1648] devastated the region; weakened role of Holy Roman emperors • [18th century] northern German city-states (esp Prussia) gaining momentum & power • [1555] Peace of Augsburg: bring end to constant conflict between Catholics and Protestants • Thirty Years’ War [1618]Protestant territories challenged authority of emperor religious and political war • [1648] Peace of Westphalia: independence of small German states RUSSIA Russia • [1480]Ivan III refused to pay tribute to Mongols; declared Russia free of Mongol Rule • Established absolute rule in Russia (uniting and expanding it) • Cossacks: peasants promised freedom from feudal lords if they conquered and settle lands east of Russia Time of Troubles • Ivan IV dies in [1584] • [1604-1613] Feudal lords battled over who should rule • [1613] Michael Romanov elected czar – Romanov Dynasty • • • • Added stability Ruled until [1917] Serfs almost slaves Expansion Peter the Great • In power from [1682-1725] • Westernize Russia – First navy – St. Petersburg as new capital “window to the west” – Recruited western Europeans to westernize Russia – Women wore western fashions – Men shaved their beards Catherine the Great • Ruled from [1762-1796] • Continued westernization – Education – Western culture – Western expansion (Poland, the Black Sea) The Ottoman Empire Ottoman Empire • Mongol Empire fell, Muslim Ottoman Empire rose in Anatolia – Founded by Osman Bey – Unify and challenge the Byzantine Empire – “Turks” • [1453] invaded Constantinople and ended Byzantine Empire Changes in the Ottoman Empire • Conquered Constantinople and renamed it Istanbul • Hagia Sophia and cathedrals converted into mosques • Empire more tolerant to religion, but changed with expansion • Within 100yrs, Ottomans conquered much of Roman empire region Selim I • [1512] came to power • Claimed he was the rightful heir to Islamic tradition under Arab caliphs • Istanbul= center of Islamic civilization • Christian subjects and children captured and turned into fighting warriors (Janissaires) Suleiman I • [1520] came to power (aka Suleiman the Magnificent) • Built up Ottoman military • “golden age” [1520-1566] – Tried to push into Europe Ottoman Empire • Lasted until [1922] • Expanded Islam • Pressure on Eastern Europe allowed Western Europe to dominate the world The Safavids • Based on military conquest • Shia Islam • In between Ottomans and Mughals Mughal Empire The Mughal Empire • [1526] Babur- leader claimed to be descended from Genghis Khan • Dominated Indian subcontinent for 300 years • United most of subcontinent Akbar • Grandson of Babur • Ruled [1556-1605] unified much of India by practicing religious toleration – Open practice – Elimination of jizya (head tax on Hindus) – Attempted to eliminate sati • Established golden age of art, architecture, and art – Taj Mahal built under Akbar’s grandson, Shah Jahan Post-Akbar era • Religious toleration ended – Muslims reinstated jizya – Hindu temples destroyed – Muslims persecuted Hindus; Hindus organizing against Muslims • Arrival of Europeans – British and Portuguese scrambled for trade in India Africa Songhai • Islamic state • Economic ties to Muslim world • Sunni Ali built Songhai by conquest and military force – navy – Central administration – Timbuktu as major Islamic center • Fell to Moroccans (they had muskets) Kongo • Close economic and political relationships with Europe (esp. Portugal) • Kings of Kongo (ex. King Alfonso I) converted to Roman Catholicism – Kingdom converted • State declined as Portuguese desired slaves Angola • Trading post in Portugal [1575] – Expanding trade – When Portugal tried to exert authority, Queen Nzinga resisted • 40 years resisted Portuguese control, allied with Dutch • Could not unify rival or overcome Portuguese China & the Ming Dynasty • [1368] Ming Dynasty restored power to native Chinese – ruled until 1644 • Strong centralized government • Civil service exams • Built large fleets – Zheng He: naval voyages Ming Government • “single-whip” system- silver currency – Silver obtained first through Japan, then Spanish through the Philippines • [16th century] Ming in decline – Europeans and pirates • [17th century] – Famines and peasant revolts • [1644] Qing warrior from Manchuria to quell peasant uprising – Take over; Qing (Manchu) Dynasty ruled until [1912] Qing Dynasty • Not ethnically Chinese; tried to remain “elite” – Forbade Chinese to learn Manchu language or marry Manchus • Opened up civil service exams to lower classes Kangxi •Ruled [1661-1722] •Confucian scholar •Supported arts •Conquered Taiwan, extended empire to Mongolia, central Asia, and Tibet Qianlong •Ruled [1735-1796] •Confucian scholar •Supported arts •Conquered Vietnam, Burma, and Nepal Manchu trade • Rights to Portuguese, Dutch, and British • When Manchu felt threatened, they would expel certain groups – [1724] Christianity banned – [1757] trade only in Canton • Europeans brought tea, silk, and porcelain for sliver Japan • [16th century] shoguns stilled ruled, emperor figurehead • Centralized power began to emerge when power of feudal lords reduced • Westernization – Christian missionaries – Jesuits take over Nagasaki and trade flourished Tokugawa Shogunate • • • • • Established by Tokugawa Ieyasu Strict, rigid government that ruled until [1868] Power away from emperor Ieyasu claimed ownership to all lands Rigid social class model Warrior Farmer Artisan Merchant Tokugawa period • “Edo period”- capital moved to Edo • Christians persecuted • [1635] National Seclusion Policy – Prohibited Japanese from traveling abroad – Prohibited foreigners to visit • Executed group of Portuguese diplomats and traders that tried to negotiate an open trade [1640] Culture • Absence of other cultures= Japanese cultures to thrive • Buddhism and Shinto • Kabuki theatre • Haiku poetry The Big Picture • Technology helped Europe become a powerful force • Expanded knowledge of the world (by exploration by the Europeans) • Increased contact= spread of new ideas and technology • Powerful women took charge of powerful empires – Elizabeth I (England), Isabella (Spain), Nur Jahan (Mughal, India) • Status and freedoms of women changed little – Legally considered property of husbands – Few rights in legal or political spheres • Biggest change: mixing cultures (mestizo) • Exception: matrilineal societies in Africa (men engaged in slave trade) Global Economy • Sailing: diminished need for Asian land routes, connected the world • Mercantilism: economic and political developments • Private Sector: larger number of people had direct stake in trade and conquest – Governments began to lose their grip on controlling economies