Download Session 4 & 5: Physical and Motor Development in Infants

Session 4 & 5: Physical and
Motor Development in Infants
& Toddlers
Manju Nair
Body Growth
Newborns gain around 28 grams/ 1 ounce of
weight a day for the first two months.
450 grams per month after that.
A new born’s length increases by 30% by 5 months
of age and 50% by 12 months.
Ethnic differences and gender differences exist in
size.
The Cephalocaudal
Trend
Growth occurs in a top down manner i.e from the
head downwards. This is true especially of the first
few months of life.
Motor development of the upper parts of the body
precedes that of the lower parts.
Changes in body proportion from birth to
adulthoodwww.mrothery.co.uk/ images/growth.gif
The Proximodistal
Trend
Growth begins at the centre of the body and
proceeds to the extremities. E.g. shoulder, then
elbow, then wrist and finally fingers.
Motor development too follows this trend.
Skeletal Growth
Body size alone is not an indication of physical
maturity and age.
The best way to estimate age is through the
skeletal age; a measure of the bone development.
Skull Growth
Skull growth is rapid because of the large increase
in the brain size in the first 2 years of life.
The bones of the skull are separated by six gaps
called ‘soft spots’ or fontanels.
The skull bones fuse together by 12 to 18 months
and the soft spots disappear.
fontanels
http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.childclinic.net/neurology/fontanel
.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.childclinic.net/neurology/fontanel1.html&usg=__6uVSnS
Appearance of Teeth
An infant’s first teeth usually appears between 4 to
6 months of age.
By age 2, the child has 20 teeth.
The lower front teeth usually appears by 5 to 9
months and upper front teeth by 8 to 12 months.
Effect of Nutrition
Nutrition has a strong effect on growth especially
breast milk in infancy. Breast milk provides the
following: 1] correct balance of fat and protein. 2]
nutritional completeness. 3] protection against
disease. 4] protection against faulty jaw
development and tooth decay. 5] digestibility. 6]
smoother transition to solid foods.
Wrong food preferences, malnutrition [marasmus
or kwashiorkor], and obesity are some factors that
affect growth.
Brain Development
The brain is nearer to its adult shape and size at
birth than any other part of the body.
The largest area of the brain is called the cerebral
cortex and is responsible for receiving and
processing sensory information, thinking, language
and so on.
The Cerebral Cortex
The largest structure in the brain.
Accounts for 85% of brain’s weight.
Looks like a shelled walnut and accounts for the
greatest number of neurons and synapses.
It is the last to stop growing and is responsible for
the unique intelligence of the human brain.
The Cerebral Cortex
http://0.tqn.com/d/psychology/1/0/W/B/lo
bes-of-brain.jpg
Functions of the Lobes
Frontal lobes: movement, decision making,
problem solving, and planning.
Occipital lobes: involved with vision and color
recognition.
Temporal lobe: hearing, emotional response,
memory and speech.
Parietal lobe: receives and processes sensory
information.
The Brain and
Nervous System
The human brain is made of 100 to 200 billion
neurons or nerve cells
Neurons are different from other body cells
because they are not tightly packed together.
There are tiny gaps between neurons where
fibers from different neurons come together but
do not touch.
Chemicals released from neurons cross over
and send messages to one another.
Neuron or nerve cell
Neurons or Nerve Cells
Production of neurons is largely complete by the
second trimester of pregnancy.
Once neurons are in place they differentiate by
establishing their unique functions and by
extending their fibers to form synaptic
connections with neighboring cells.
Neural fibers and synapses grow at an
astounding rate during the first two years.
Peak period of brain growth is also followed by
‘programmed cell death’.
Neurons and Synapses
Stimulation of neurons is important for their
survival.
Neurons seldom stimulated lose their synapses in
a process called synaptic pruning.
Synaptic pruning returns neurons not needed to an
uncommitted state to be used at a later stage of
development.
Neurons and
Myelinization
Half the brain size is made of glial cells, which coat
the neural fibers with fatty cells in a process called
myelinization. Myelinization improves the efficiency
of message transfer.
At birth the brain is 30% of adult size, at 2 years
70% and at 6 years 90%.
Lateralization and
Plasticity
The cerebral cortex has two hemispheres - left and
right that differ in their functions
Each side receives information and controls the
opposite side of the body.
Left hemisphere is largely responsible for verbal
abilities and positive emotions
Right hemisphere is largely responsible for spatial
abilities and negative emotions.
This specialization is called lateralization.
Left side deals with processing information in a
sequential and analytical way. The right
hemisphere for holistic, integrative manner.
A lateralized brain is more effective.
Brain plasticity is a process where when one part
of the brain is damaged other parts take over its
function. In a highly lateralized brain this may not
be possible.
The younger the child when damage takes place
the greater the chances of recovery.
Handedness; left or right develops as a result of
lateralization.Left handedness is linked to less
lateralization.
The cerebellum at the rear base of the brain, is
responsible for aiding balance and control of body
movement. This does not complete myelinization
till 4 years of age.
Brain growth and
Sensitive periods.
The existence of sensitive periods in the
development of cerebral cortex has been proven
by studies on animals.
Surges in frontal lobe activity are also seen in
human infants during different stages.
Between age 3 and 6 the frontal lobe areas for
planning and organizing show increased activity.
Massive production of synapses account for brain
growth in the first 2 years.
Synaptic pruning, myelinization, and longer
distance connections between other parts of the
brain account for later ones.
Experience wires a child’s brain development but
overstimulation is as harmful as under-stimulation.
Gross Motor
Development
Refers to control over actions that help
infants/toddlers get around in the environment.
The ability of humans to use two legs and walk
involves the whole body
Fine motor
development.
Refers to development of small muscles and the
ability to control use of the hands and feet, do
activities that involve small muscles of the fingers,
toes, and other parts of the body.
Small muscle development is necessary for
physical activities such as grasping, cutting,
throwing and drawing.
Reaching and Grasping
Newborns make poor coordinated swipes called
pre-reaching.
The grasp reflex is replaced by the ulnar grasp.
By the end of the first year infants use the thumb
and index finger in a well coordinated pincer grasp.
Bowel and Bladder
Control
Urination and bowel movements are part of
muscular development.
Children must consistently identify the signals from
a full bladder or rectum and wait for the right place
to open these muscles; then they are ready for
toilet training.
Toilet Training
Other signs of toilet training readiness include;
A toddler who stays dry for several hours at a time.
Stops playing during urination or bowel movement.
Is bothered by wet or full diaper.
References
Berk, L.E. (2003). Child Development (5th Ed).
USA: Pearson Education Inc.
Influences on Physical
Growth
Heredity
Hormonal Influences: growth hormone deficiency.
In some societies there is a bias towards height or
stature correlating it to competence and leadership
Influences on Physical
Growth
Breastfeeding: helps myelinating the nervous
system and enhances functioning of immune
system.
Lack of protein can lead to Kwashiorkor, which
usually strikes toddlers or Marasmus that strikes
infants.
Iron deficiency or anemia leads to improper
functioning of the central nervous system.
MARASMUS
The food pyramid
http://abcnews.go.com/Health/food-pyramid-foodplate/story?id=13743137#.T3_or-2D76E
http://safe-to-be-slender.blogspot.com/2011/11/foodpyramid-is-now-food-plate-method.html
Influences on Physical
Growth
Unhealthy eating habits can lead to obesity
(Stettler et al, 2005).
Lack of love and attention can lead to
a) Non-organic failure to thrive syndrome
b) Deprivation dwarfism.
Chronic childhood diseases can lead to stunted
growth though most of the time children undergo
catch up growth
Motor Skill
Development
Growth in the ability to use the body and physical
skills.
Processes by which we acquire movement
patterns and skills.
Gross Motor Skill
Development
Movements such as walking, running, and catching
that extend the large muscles of the body, arms
and legs.
Early physical development experiences in the
curriculum help children develop competences,
interest in physical activities, provides release of
tension and promotes relaxation.
Gross Motor Skill
Development in childcare
To facilitate a child’s gross motor development provide
various kinds of sturdy and durable equipment.
Equipments for lifting, pulling, and pushing around.
An unobstructed area for play.
Outdoor play & Gardening.
Gross motor skills provide kinesthetic awareness,
flexibility, coordination and agility.
Gross motor
development from 2-3
years
Walks more rhythmically, hurried walk turns to run.
Jumps, hops, throws, and catches with rigid upper
body.
Pushes riding toy with feet, little steering.
From 3 to 4 years
Walking up stairs, alternating feet, and
downstairs, leading with one foot.
Jumps and hops, flexing upper body.
Throws and catches with slight involvement of
upper body, still catches by trapping ball against
chest.
Pedals and steers tricycle.
From 4 to 5 years
Walks downstairs, alternating feet, runs more
smoothly.
Gallops and skips with one foot.
Throws ball with increased body rotation and
transfer of weight on feet, catches ball with hands.
Rides tricycles rapidly, steers smoothly.
From 5 to 6 years
Increasing running speed to 12 feet per second.
Gallops more smoothly, engages in true skipping
and sideways stepping.
Displays mature, whole body throwing and
catching patterns, increases throwing speed.
Rides bicycles with training wheels.
From 7 to 12 years
Increases running speed to more than 18 feet per second.
Displays continuous fluid skipping and sideways stepping.
Increases vertical jump from 4 to 12 inches and broad jump from 3 to over
5 feet, accurately jumps and hops from square to square.
Increases throwing and kicking accuracy, distance and speed.
Includes the whole body in batting a ball, batting increases in speed and
accuracy.
Dribbling changes from awkward slapping of the ball to continuos, relaxed
even stroking.
Growth Patterns.
Large motor activities that make use of large
muscles; develop first.
Large muscles develop before small muscles do.
Impressive array of large motor coordination
emerges in the first 36 months.
There are individual differences in rates and
sequence of development. Awareness of
sequence is more helpful than the exact age
particular traits emerge.
Growth pattern
Small motor development develop from head down
and from the central axis of the body outwards cephalocaudal and proximodistal.
Vision and hearing develop first in infants.
Perceptual motor development i.e. relationship
between a child’s perception and motor response,
influences learning.
Fine Motor
Development in Child
Care
Planning time to engage with a wide variety of play
materials involving the small muscles; fingers, toes,
and other parts of the body.
Examples are crafts, puzzles, threading, moulding,
playing with blocks.
Children with Special Rights
To ensure proper motor development, general health and
nutritional needs should be met.
Ongoing assessment of physical and motor abilities
should be done. For e.g. reflexive reactions, posture,
balance, flexibility, voluntary movement, transitional
movement, mobility preference patterns, eye-hand, handmouth and eye-foot coordination, chewing and
swallowing efficiency.
Early intervention in the form of therapy, assessment,
purposeful activity and inclusive environment should be
provided.
Relationship between physical/motor
development and social and
emotional development.
Each emerging motor skill contributes to the
child’s emerging self concept and sense of self
efficacy [feeling that one’s efforts are effective]
With the development of self help skills, children
develop positive self image.
Body awareness and gender awareness comes
with increased motor development. Toilet training
is a part of this though it is a slow maturational
process.
Relationship between
physical/motor and cognitive
development
As neurons develop in the brain their continued
growth and survival depends on environmental
stimulation.
The quantity and quality of stimulation has long
term implications for cognitive development.
Visual, olfactory, auditory, tactile, taste and
kinesthetic stimulation enhance brain growth.
Opportunities for large and small muscle
movement enhance sensory exploration.