Download AP Test Review Part Five

AP Test Review Part Five
1914 - 1945
World War I (1914-1918)
The war was sparked by the shooting of
Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand, but
the shooting was only a catalyst.
 All of the elements leading to war had
been in place for most of the 20th
century. The shooting just provided an
immediate cause.

Underlying Causes of the War
Imperialism: Colonial rivalries between
the major European powers created
hatred and hostility that led to war.
 Militarism: Europe had been
experiencing an arms race ever since
the unification of Germany.

– Major naval rivalries existed between
Germany & England, and army rivalries
existed between France and Germany.
More Underlying Causes

Nationalism: This force brought about
WWI in a variety of ways:
– nationalism spawned the unification of Italy
& Germany and caused a major shift in the
balance of power.
– Nationalism caused the great powers to
pursue expansionist policies.
– Nationalism on the part of ethnic minorities
in Austria led to revolts & secret orgs.
– Russia pursued a policy of Pan-Slavism.
More Underlying Causes

Alliance systems: These led nations to
take rash actions, knowing that their
allies would come to their aid.
– Triple Alliance (formed 1882): Germany,
Italy, and Austria-Hungary
• originally called the Three Emperors League
(Germany, Russia, Austria), it ended when
Russia withdrew, due to rivalries with Austria
over the Balkan region.
More Alliances

Two more important alliances played a
part in WWI:
– Triple Entente (1910): Russia, France, and
England
• This alliance began as the Franco-Russian
Alliance of 1894, and the dual entente of
England and France in 1902.
– The Little Entente: Russia, Poland,
Romania, and Serbia
The Crises Leading to War
Imperial rivalries, such as the Fashoda
Affair between England & France, and the
Kruger Telegram between England &
Germany, existed in the 1890’s.
 1905: First Moroccan Crisis: Germany tried
to take over Tangiers (Morocco) and called
an international conference (Algiciris) to
settle its ownership. Germany was
humiliated & France kept Morocco.

More Crises

1908: Balkan Crisis (Bosnian
Crisis):Both Austria & Serbia wanted to
expand in the Balkans. When Serbia
protested the Austrian annexation of
Bosnia, Russia sided with Serbia.
Russia threatened to declare war, but
Germany sided with Austria and Russia
backed down.
More Crises
1911: Second Moroccan Crisis: The
Germans sent the gunboat, Panther, to
Agadir (Morocco) to protest French
occupation of the region.
 This caused England and France to join
together to draw up war plans against
the Germans.
 Germany withdrew after gaining a piece
of the French Congo.

More Crises

Balkan War of 1912: Greece, Bulgaria,
and Serbia joined together defeat
Turkey.
– They divided up Turkish possessions in the
Balkans.

Balkan War of 1913: The territory that
Bulgaria had taken in the previous year
was taken from her by an alliance of
Russia, Turkey, Serbia, and Greece.
The Assassination & War
June 28, 1914: Sarajevo: The Austrian
Archduke was assassinated by Gavrillo
Princip, a Bosnian member of the Black
Hand.
 Austrian Ultimatum: Austria blamed
Serbian nationalists for the shooting and
demanded a free hand in their own
investigation of the crime.

The Crisis Leads to War
Serbia’s Reply: Serbia accepted most of
the ultimatum, but rejected parts that would
destroy her sovereignty.
 German Actions: On one hand, Germany
offered Austria a “blank check” of support.
On the other hand, the Kaiser tried to
negotiate a settlement between Serbia &
Austria.
 July 28, 1914: Germany invaded Belgium
and Austria declared war on Serbia.

War Begins
Russia had been the 1st to mobilize, but
Germany was the 1st to go to war.
 Germany swept through Belgium,
causing England and France to declare
war.
 Germany then declared war on Russia,
who declared war on the central powers.

The War
The central powers had better armies,
but the allies had more men and
resources.
 Germany used the Schlieffen plan to
begin the war, but after the Battle of the
Marne, the war turned into a long
struggle with the advent of trench
warfare. (remember Vauban)

The War in the East
Russia initially held off the limited number
of German troops on the eastern front,
but when German strength increased and
Austria and Turkey became involved, the
war was a complete disaster for Russia.
 Russian losses were enormous and led to
the collapse of the Russian gov’t by 1917.
 Treaty of Brest Litovsk: 1917: Russia out
of the war.

The War at Sea
The war at sea was almost more
important than the land aspect of the war.
 British naval strength was superior to that
of the Germans, but German U-boats
inflicted great damage and were one
factor in the entrance of the US in the
war.

The War Ends
Despite temporary German victories,
largely caused by the use of poison gas,
the allied victory over Germany at the
Battle of Verdun turned the tide of war.
 Eventually, British, French, Italian, and
American armies, led by French
Marshall Foch broke German lines and
led to the armistice on Nov. 11, 1918.

Changes Created by the War
New Weapons: tanks, poison gas, subs,
airplanes, machine guns, etc.
 Russian Revolution
 Recreated the map of Europe
 Brought about the mandate system in
the middle east and led to nationalist
revolts in the area following the war.
 10 million dead, 20 million wounded, &
$150 billion worth of property damage.

Changes in the Allied Nations

Within the allied countries, the war
brought great changes:
– compulsory military training
– forced employment of men & women in
war-industry jobs
– restrictions on labor & management for the
war cause
– war planning, regulations, price controls, &
massive propaganda campaigns
– women’s suffrage after the war
Versailles Conference
1919: Versailles conference: Big 4 made
all important decisions: Lloyd George,
Clemenceau, Orlando, and Wilson.
 Wilson tried to base a lasting peace on his
14 points, but they were largely rejected
as being too idealistic by European
leaders.
 Wilson sacrificed most of his program to
establish a league of nations.

The Treaty of Versailles
League of Nations created (US didn’t join)
 Alsace & Lorraine restored to France
 French exploitation of the Saar valley for
15 years
 Huge reparations to be paid by Germany
 Confiscation of German military supplies,
and Germany allowed to have only a
100,000 man militia.

The Treaty of Versailles
Demilitarization of the Rhineland
 War guilt clause blamed Germany for
the war and justified reparations
 German and Turkish colonies taken
over by the League of Nations who
gave overseas colonies to the allies and
created mandates in the middle east.
 Restoration of Belgium & Poland
 Creation of Yugoslavia

Problems in Russia
Although the czar had not followed
through on his promises made after the
revolution of 1905, dissatisfied parties in
Russia tried to cooperate with the gov’t
in the defense of Russia in 1914.
 After the armies began to lose, the czar
fired competent generals and replaced
them himself, at the front.

– opposition grew more discontented, as a
result.
More Russian Problems
As war losses mounted, food shortages
at home led to rioting in Russian cities.
 On the front, Russian soldiers were
finally limited to 2 bullets per day, and
many mutinied.
 Rasputin’s influence on Czarina
Alexandra further alienated the public,
and soon, revolution was nearly
inevitable.

The Revolution of March, 1917
The March revolution began with a general
strike in St. Petersburg (Petrograd,
Leningrad).
 The strike was followed by a mutiny
among the troops and the dissolving of the
duma.
 The new gov’t that took over was known
as the Provisional Gov’t & it was run by
Kerensky and Prince Lvov.

The Provisional Government

On March 17, 1917, Czar Nicholas
abdicated. Shortly afterward, the royal
family was arrested.
– They were eventually executed by the
Bolsheviks.

The new gov’t declared full civil liberties
for all Russians, freed Poland and
Finland, and called for a constituent
assembly to pass needed reforms.
Problems for the New Gov’t

Russians wanted to get out of WWI,
because they were losing so badly, and
because supplies were so short on the
homefront.
– Kerensky accepted a bribe and kept Russia in
the war.
Hunger was a problem all over Russia.
 Most Russians wanted land reform.
 The Prov. Gov’t did nothing to help the
distressed population.

The Soviets
Soviets were small workers’ councils which
had been established following the
revolution of 1905.
 The Petrograd Soviet was under the
control of Trotsky and was the most radical
group calling for further action.
 The Soviets called for an immediate end to
the war, for peace with Germany, and for
the seizure of land by the peasants &
workers.

Lenin
Lenin had been active in the Social
Democratic Party (Marxists) since its
inception in Russia.
 1902: He wrote “What is to be done?” in
which he laid out his plans for revolution.
 The same year, he took control of the
more radical wing of the party, the
Bolsheviks.

The Road to Revolution

April 16, 1917: Germany ships Lenin
back to Russia from his exile in
Switzerland in a sealed rail car.
– Germany did this, believing that Lenin
would sue for peace after leading the
revolution in Russia.

Lenin’s motto: “Peace, Land, & Bread.”
– This was exactly what the people wanted
to hear.
The Road to Revolution
Lenin called for the resignation of the
provisional government and the transfer
of power to the soviets, but this demand
was premature.
 July, 1917: The provisional gov’t armed
the Bolsheviks so they could help the
gov’t fight off a military coup (The
Kornilov Affair).

– These arms were later turned on the gov’t.
The October Revolution

Nov. 6, 1917: Led by Lenin & Trotsky,
Bolshevik leaders, soldiers, and workers
quickly took over Petrograd, stormed
the winter palace, & arrested the
remaining members of the provisional
government.
– Alexander Kerensky escaped and lived in
exile.
The Revolution Continues

Nov. 7, 1917: Lenin declares the
revolution a success and renames the
country the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics.
– Lenin = head of state
– Trotsky = foreign minister & head of the red
army
– Stalin = commissar for national minorities
Soviet Russia: 1917-1828
Between 1917 and 1928, the new
Bolshevik government established
Soviet power in Russia and enacted
Soviet policies.
 There are three major themes of this
period in Soviet history:

– Military & internal problems
– Development of economic policies
– Power struggle between Stalin & Trotsky
Internal Problems Begin

The Bolsheviks expected worldwide
revolution to follow their successful
revolution in Russia and so they
immediately began to prepare.
– In preparation, the Soviets nationalized and
communized sugar, petroleum, and textile
production and all mining, and by 1920, all
industries employing more than 10 people
were state-owned.
– The gov’t requisitioned all farm produce, and
only gov’t officials cold buy & sell goods.
Military & Internal Problems

March 3, 1918: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
took Russia out of the war and ceded
large amounts of territory to Germany.
– Russia gave up most of the area in the
vicinity of the Ukraine and lost about 1/3 of
its population.

Civil War was raging between the Reds
(bolsheviks) and the Whites (everyone
who opposed the reds).
– By 1921, the reds won the civil war.
Economic Problems
Though the whites were put down, the
Soviet internal situation remained critical
in 1921, with the economy being below
pre-war levels.
 The anarchists and peasants began to
revolt in the countryside in an attempt to
do something about the starvation &
suffering of the masses.

The New Economic Policy (NEP)
This was Lenin’s stop-gap measure to
retain control and provide temporary relief.
 Under the NEP, peasants were allowed to
keep part of their produce, which they were
allowed to sell for cash profit on newlyrecreated local markets.
 The gov’t kept control of heavy industry &
internat’l trade, but light manufacturing and
internal trade was returned to private
hands.

NEP, continued

The Kulaks and other entrepreneurs made
large profits by taking advantage of this
liberalization.
– As a result, some bolsheviks, such as Trotsky,
wanted to kill them
– Some other people wanted to extend the NEP
to include even more private business
– Lenin believed both groups were wrong, and
that the NEP was necessary until a full
communist society could be realized in the
future.
The Power Struggle:
Stalin vs. Trotsky
Lenin had a series of strokes between
1922 & 1924. He finally died in 1924.
 Trotsky & Stalin both wanted to be Lenin’s
successor.

– Trotsky was a theorist who had organized the
red army and the Petrograd Soviet.
– Stalin was an activist who had been
instrumental in forcing the minority republics to
unite into the USSR. He also had control of
the machinery of gov’t.
Stalin vs. Trotsky
Trotsky wanted to promote world revolution
ASAP, while Stalin was willing to wait &
instead concentrate on rebuilding the
USSR, 1st.
 When Trotsky publicly criticized Stalin’s
foreign policy in 1927, Stalin had him exiled
to Siberia.
 Trotsky eventually escaped to the west &
was assassinated by Stalin’s men in 1941.

Lenin’s Testament
In his will, Lenin stated that Stalin was
too power-hungry and too brutal and
uncouth to become his successor.
 Lenin believed Trotsky should be the
next head of the USSR.
 Stalin, however, gained full control of
the USSR, after the exile of Trotsky.

Stalinist Russia
With Stalin’s rise to power, the NEP was
ended.
 Stalin was typified by the following:

– Purges: to insure personal loyalty to Stalin
& his communist system.
– Collectivization of Agriculture and Industry:
– Identification of the State & the Communist
Party: all in his own person.
– Five Year Plans: to meet emergency needs
for industrialization and mechanization.
Five Year Plans

Emergency programs to industrialize the
USSR so it could protect itself & compete
with the West.
– Heavy industry, steel mills, electrical power,
cement, railroads, & tractor building.
– The bureaucracy necessary to carry out the
plans became a highly paid class of
communist party members.
Purges (1934-1938)
From 1934-1938, Stalin directed a series of
wholesale purges consisting of trumped-up
or false accusations, mock trials, and then
suicide or execution.
 He did away with most of the old Bolshevik
leaders and others who could challenge his
power.
 He tried to eliminate the kulaks.
 Stalin’s cult of personality: He eliminated
people not personally loyal.

1936 Constitution
Although the constitution called for
universal suffrage and appeared to be
very liberal, it actually was circumvented
by the fact that the party and the gov’t
were controlled by the same few
persons.
 For example, even though the nation
had a premier, in practice, the premier
was always the comm. party secretary.

Soviet Foreign Policy
Initially,Stalin favored “Socialism in one
State.” (building it in the USSR, 1st, and
then later exporting the revolution).
 During the late 1930’s, Stalin favored the
Popular Front strategy of trying to stop
fascism before Hitler could get any more
power in his hands.
 Finally, after WWII, Stalin began to actively
seek to spread Communism in to other
parts of the world.

Totalitarianism
Leftist: Communism
 Right wing: Fascism
 While Communism had become the
dominant style of dictatorship in the
USSR, Fascism appealed to radicals in
Italy & Germany.

Italy
After switching sides to end the war
fighting with the allies in WWI, Italy was
disappointed in the lack of territorial gain
she achieved at Versailles.
 The Italian economy was in shambles
after WWI, and unemployment was high.
 Italian political parties were unable to
gain a majority and so very little reform
was happening.

The Rise of Mussolini
Following the war, the king, Victor
Emmanuel III was a figurehead with
virtually no power.
 Mussolini, originally a socialist,
organized the 1st fasces group in 1919.
 He had few followers, at 1st, but due to
the bad conditions, people began to
listen to his ideas.

Mussolini, continued

In 1920, he founded a para-military
group called the Black Shirts which
consisted of ex-soldiers, shopkeepers,
workers, and intellectuals.
– He used the Black Shirts in a campaign of
terror to promote fascist ideas.
– His numbers grew from 30,000 in 1920 to
300,000 in 1922.
Fascism

What is fascism?
– Fascism is a political philosophy which is antidemocratic, anti-communist, and anti-liberal.
– Fascism uses terror, dictatorial practices, and
any available means to force compliance with
fascist demands.
– Fascists are often confused with communists,
but even though they use similar tactics to
keep control, their beliefs are diametrically
opposed.
Italy
1921: Fascists were for the 1st time elected
to the parliament.
 Oct. 1922: March on Rome: Mussolini’s
Blackshirts and thousands of discontented
Italians marched on Rome demanding a
new government.

– The king yielded and gave Mussolini
constitutional authority to form a new
government, thus giving the fascists political
power.
Italian Fascism

Soon after taking power, constitutionally,
Mussolini created a fascist dictatorship.
– He created a fascist militia (out of the
Blackshirts)
– He made the army swear personal
allegiance to him
– He passed emergency power decrees
– He revised the electoral system to assure
him absolute control.
Italian Fascism, continued

By 1924, Mussolini terrorized his opposition
out of existence.
– Political opponents who voiced resentment
were found dead.
By 1926, Mussolini ruled entirely by decree
and the only legal political party was the
fascist party.
 Dictatorship was secure in the person of
Mussolini & his Grand Council of Fascists.

Fascist Beliefs & Actions

Mussolini controlled the economy by a
planning system (syndicalism) and by
creating what he called the corporate state.
– The state represented labor in negotiations, in
industrial planning, expansion, etc.
– Both capital & labor were controlled by the
fascists from local units throughout the whole
state.
– Supposedly, the state represented the
“collective will” of all of its citizens.
More Fascist Policies
The chief economic and social problems
remained unsolved by the Fascists.
 Mussolini believed in the inviolability of
private property and thus received
support from land and factory owners.
 In foreign policy, Mussolini aligned
himself with Hitler in the Rome-Berlin
Axis.

The Lateran Accords
Mussolini neutralized the Catholic
Church with this agreement of 1929.
 Mussolini granted independent status to
the Vatican in exchange for promises of
non-interference from the church in all
political, social, economic, and military
spheres.
 As a result, Mussolini gained complete
control of the Italian educational system.

Foreign Policy
Mussolini sent his fascist troops to
intervene in the Spanish Civil War to
help Franco take over Spain.
 Mussolini’s troops also took over the
nation of Albania.
 Mussolini, hoping to take over more
territory and avenge the 1896 defeat at
Adowa, invaded Ethiopia and quickly
took it over.

Germany After WWI
Nov. 1918: Kaiser Wilhelm was ousted
and the Weimar Republic was created.
 Nov. 11, 1918: Germany surrendered,
ending WWI.
 Since the Weimar Republic signed the
Treaty of Versailles, it was blamed for the
territorial losses and the reparations, and
ruled only with the support of the military.

The Weimar Republic
Dominated by the Social Democrats
 Ebert was the 1st President
 democratic Constitution included:

– President
– Reichstag (universal suffrage, proportional
representation--led to gov’t by coalition)
– Chancellor & Cabinet (responsible to the
President)
– Chancellor could rule by emergency decree
Political Crisis in the Weimar
Republic
Opposition came from the far left
(Communists/Sparticists) and the far right
(Fascists).
 Sparticist Uprising: Jan. 1919: led by Rosa
Luxemberg and Karl Liebknecht. Put down
by the Freikorps (a right-wing army group)
 Kapp Putsch: March 1920: the far right,
mostly monarchists, staged a coup, but it
failed due to a general strike in Berlin.

More Problems in Germany
Right-wing radicals rebelled, mostly by
secret & terrorist means, killing off many
moderate political leaders.
 Germany faced horrible inflation and
economic crisis after the French occupied
the Ruhr in Jan. 1923, in response to the
Germans defaulting on their reparation
payments.
 Coalition gov’ts failed, one after the other in
Germany in the early 1920’s.

Weimar in Transition

Stab-in-the-back theory: Ludendorff
claimed that the gov’t had surrendered
even though the army could have won.
– This untrue theory made people dissatisfied
with the government, because they believed
Ludendorff.

Treaty of Rapallo: 1922: secret treaty in
which the USSR allowed Germany to have
an army in the USSR in return for the
Germans training the Red Army.
More Problems
1923: Munich Beer Hall Putsch: Hitler &
Ludendorff led a coup in a Munich Beer
Hall and were arrested & imprisoned.
 While in jail, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf
and began to plan how he would later
take over Germany, so as to not fail, as
he did in 1923.

The Stresemann Years
Under Stresemann, the Weimar
government achieved some degree of
solvency and stability.
 The Locarno Pacts: These agreements
were signed by most of the European
nations, but the USSR was not invited to
participate.

– Allowed Germany to join the League of Nations
– Guaranteed Western, but not E. borders.
The Rise of Hitler
Although it seemed that Hitler’s chances
of gaining power were slim in the 1920’s,
the great depression changed the political
climate of Germany and caused people to
have a reason to listen to his promises.
 The Nazi party promised to regain
German greatness, provide prosperity,
and rise above the disgrace of Versailles.

Hitler’s Rise, continued

Hitler formed the SA (Stormtroopers)
and offered a meal and a shirt to any
man who would join the Nazi cause.
– This attracted unemployed men of all
classes, especially unemployed veterans.

1930 Reichstag Election: The Nazi party
began to gain a significant # of seats,
but did not get a majority.
Hitler’s Rise, continued
As the depression grew worse and the
radicals on both ends of the spectrum
grew more active, President Hindenberg
was helpless to deal with the situation.
 Cabinets under Bruning,von Papen, and
Schleicher failed to deal with the
growing power of the Nazis, and Hitler
used this chance to become chancellor.

Hitler’s Rise, continued
The Nazis began to march in large rallies
and began to exercise public terror
campaigns.
 The conservatives and industrialists thought
Hitler was a better alternative than a
communist and cautiously supported his
rise.
 The lower middle classes supported him
because he offered a way out of the
depression.

Hitler Becomes Chancellor

Election of 1932:
– Hindenberg won the Presidency, but Hitler
had a lot of support.
– The Nazi party gained more seats in the
Reichstag, but still did not have a majority.
Jan. 30, 1933: Hindenberg appointed
Hitler Chancellor in a coalition cabinet.
 Hitler immediately began to consolidate
his power.

Hitler’s Consolidation of Power

Feb. 1933: Hitler arranged for a
Dutchman to burn the Reichstag
building.
– The fire was blamed on the communists
and was used as justification for kicking all
of the communists out of the government.
– Eventually, Germany became a one-party
state.
Consolidation, continued

After the Reichstag fire, Hitler invoked
the emergency clause of the
constitution and ruled by decree.
– After this, the rest of Hitler’s powers were
taken by seizure, terror, and dictatorship.

Hitler purged Roehm and other SA
leaders in the “Night of the Long
Knives,” thus ensuring his control of the
Nazi party.
Hitler’s Bureaucracy
Ministry of Propaganda: led by
Goebbels to spread Nazi doctrines
 Goering: Hitler hired him to build up a
military air force.
 Rosenberg: hired by Hitler to further
expand his anti-Semitic and Aryan
supremacy theories.
 Hess: Hitler’s Chief Secretary who
helped carry out Nazi policies

Hitler’s Policies
1934: Hindenberg died & Hitler became
President. Later he took on the title
“Fuehrer.”
 Gestapo (secret police) established
 Hitler pulled Germany out of the League of
Nations and began to ignore international
law.
 The Nuremberg Laws marked the
beginning of Hitler’s attempt to enforce his
anti-Semitic policies.

Hitler’s Policies, continued
Hitler began to build up all branches of the
military and instituted 4 year plans to step
up production and building of war materials,
food, and the Autobahn.
 To further promote his plans, Hitler
instituted forced labor conscription, the
abolition of unions, and the Nazi Youth.
 Churches were persecuted by extremist
Nazis and clergy often went along with Nazi
teaching out of fear of reprisals.

Hitler’s Policies, continued
Constitutional: Dictatorship under the
Fuehrer; regional politics governed by
local party organizations (Gaue).
 Administrative: All non-Aryans barred
from office
 Political: one-party state; all affairs
handled by the Nazi bureaucracy (called
coordination or “gleichschaltung”).

More Policies
Judicial: The state & Nazi ideals were
placed above traditional judicial
precedents; punishment & arrest, as
well as court procedures, were
barbarized.
 Racial: believed in the supremacy of the
Aryan race; persecution and
extermination of Jews, gypsies, and
other non-Aryans. Culminated in the
killing of 6 million Jews in the Holocaust.

More Policies
Religious: Protestant & Catholic churches
persecuted when they spoke out against
Nazi theories; Hitler tried to substitute
Nazi party events & youth groups for
religious gatherings.
 Military: build up of the military; universal
military service required; gov’t funded
research to develop new weapons; highly
disciplined army.

More Policies

Cultural: The Kulturkampf was Hitler’s
struggle for domination of every aspect of
thought & action by the Nazi ideals.
– Controlled art, music, drama, etc.--usually of
low quality & used for propaganda.
– Supported writers and musicians who
expressed the greatness of the Germanic
peoples (ex. Wagner)
– Glorified the image of the Nazi mother who
stayed at home and took care of her family.
More Policies

Economic:
– All labor unions were outlawed.
– The Nazi Labor Front organized labor and
served the interests of the Nazi party
– All unemployment ended by labor &
military conscription
– Attempted to make Germany self-sufficient
through the 4 year plans.
Hitler’s Foreign Policy

Hitler wanted to control Europe and
followed the policy of Lebensraum
which was originally set out in Mein
Kampf.
– Lebensraum means living space and
referred to Hitler’s attempts to expand
eastward to create more living space for
the German Aryans while eliminating the
Slavs, who Hitler believed to be very
inferior.

Hitler’s foreign policy led to WWII.
The Spanish Civil War

Spanish Republic: 1931-36: very
unstable.
– The republic was not supported by the
Catholic church, the army, the conservative
landowners, nor the leftist anarchists.

1936: the Rightist Falange, led by
General Franco, began a military coup
to seize the gov’t.
– Franco was aided by Hitler & Mussolini.
– This war was a dress-rehearsal for WWII.
The Spanish Civil War, cont’.
The democratic nations of Europe did
nothing. (appeasement)
 The USSR tried to lead a Popular Front
effort against the fascists and wanted to
stop them before they got any stronger.
 Eventually, the republic fell to Franco,
assuring that Spain would not stand in
the way of Fascist actions in WWII.

Mid-war England
England was one of the “joyless victors”
of WWI and faced a wide variety of
problems between the wars.
 These problems included economic
crises, political instability, disputes over
the future of Ireland, and colonial
difficulties.

Economic Problems in England
Had a difficult time making the transition
from a war economy to a peace-time one.
 1920’s: high unemployment & inflation
 Hurt badly by the Am. Stock market crash &
the resulting great depression
 Tariff barriers all over the world created
problems for British trade, as did new rivals
for markets.

– To solve these problems, Br. adopted
unemployment insurance, and old-age
pensions.
British Political Developments
1919-1923: Conservative cabinet with
strong labor opposition.
 1923: Liberals & Labor unite to form a
cabinet under Mac Donald, pushing the
conservatives out of office.
 1924: Conservatives return, due to poor
policies on the part of the labor party.

– Conservatives did try to intervene industry
with subsidies, securing wages, & attempts to
control labor.
Political Instability
1928: Trades Disputes Act: gave more
rights to owners in labor disputes
 1929: Conservatives ousted, but the labor
party was then faced with the onset of the
great depression.
 Mac Donald, Baldwin, and Chamberlain
each had to deal with the rising fascist tide,
economic crises, and the need for
rearmament.

The Problem of Ireland
1914: Government of Ireland Bill: (to
allow home rule) suspended by WWI
 Hatred between Ulster (N, Protestant, &
Pro-British) and the rest of Ireland
(Catholic & pro-independence) grew
intense during the war.

– Sinn Fein became more active & actively
revolutionary (1916 Easter Rebellion), but
England crushed the Irish Patriots.
Ireland, continued
Throughout the war, Irish terrorism was a
problem, and Germany subtly helped the
Irish.
 1921: Irish Free State created with its own
parliament and with allegiance to the British
king and government.

– N. Irish guaranteed their choice of gov’t, as
well.
– Ireland totally broke away from England in the
1930’s under De Valera. & the N. stayed with
England.
British Mandates/Protectorates
Egypt: gained its independence from Britain
in 1922, but Britain still dominated Egyptian
economics, because it controlled the Suez
Canal until its nationalization in 1956.
 Iraq: Britain was given “Mesopotamia” after
WWI as a protectorate, but Iraq gained its
independence in 1921.

– Britain dominated Iraqi oil fields until the
1950’s.
Palestine

During the war, the British promised this
area to the Arabs in the McMahon
Pledge, and to the Jews in the Balfour
Declaration.
– This was the legal basis for the conflict
over the Palestinian/Israeli territory which
still exists, today.

Jordan was created as an independent
state in 1928, as was Saudi Arabia.
British Dominions
The British Dominions of Canada, Australia,
New Zealand, and South Africa had all
fought with Britain during WWI.
 1931: The Statute of Westminster:

– gave the dominions commonwealth status,
meaning that they were free, but had the
advantages of free trade & economic
preference with Britain.
– They still recognized the Br. Monarchy& were
dependent upon Br for protection & leadership.
Midwar France
France lost more property, wealth, and
population than any other nation in
WWI.
 After the war, they had a wide variety of
economic, political, and international
problems caused by the war.

French Economic Problems

France hoped to pay for the rebuilding of
their destroyed lands & cities with German
reparations, but it was obvious by the mid1920’s that Germany could not pay.
– 1923: France retaliated against the German
default by invading the Ruhr (a German
industrial area).
– This invasion destroyed the German economy
& also hurt France.
French Economic Problems

1924: Dawes Plan:
– reduced the German reparation payments,
making them dependent upon the German GNP
– France was required to leave the Ruhr.

1929: Young Plan:
– Eased German payments even more, after the
depression began to set in.

1932: Hoover Moratorium:
– Suspended reparations payments (became
permanent)
More Problems

These plans all caused great resentment,
because France was deprived of the $$$ it
needed to rebuild.
– Germany appeared to be getting off easy, not
having to pay for the damages she caused.

When the great depression hit in France, it
was extremely severe, because the French
economic base was so weak.
French Foreign Policy
French foreign policy was dominated by
the search for security, between the
wars.
 President Poincare did the following to
secure France from German attack:

– Secret pact with Belgium: 1920
– Secret pact with Poland : 1921
– Secret pacts with Czech, Yugoslavia, and
Romania: 1921-27.
French Foreign Policy

Maginot Line: built under Poincare’s
administration on the French-German
border to protect from German invasion.
– Failure because it did not cover the Belgian
border, and because all the guns were fixed
facing Germany.

President Briand signed the Locarno Pacts
which secured the Fr-Ger borders (1925) &
the Kellogg-Briand Pact which outlawed
war (1928)
French Political Problems
Unstable government (Political Turnstile)
with continually changing ruling
party/President.
 Many political scandals (ex. Stravinsky
affair 1933) discredited the gov’t.
 Many radical parties began to grow in the
face of political and economic crisis.
 Major disagreement over whether to
appease Hitler or join the Popular Front with
the USSR.

Political Problems

Leon Blum: French socialist who promoted
a popular front government.
– Wanted to intervene in the Spanish civil war
but had no support to do so.
– Wanted to nationalize some French industries
& businesses but this was unpopular among
the middle & upper classes.
– Fell to Daladier’s gov’t due to his inability to
deal with political & economic problems
(“Better Hitler than Blum”)
THE ROAD TO WWII

Many factors during the mid-war years
led to war. These included:
– Economic Rivalry: high protective tariffs cut
down on free trade (esp. hurt nations w/o
colonial markets), great depression hurt
markets, resurgence of economic
nationalism.
More Problems

Failure of the League of Nations:
– Didn’t have the power to enforce its decisions
and was powerless to prevent war.
– Economic sanctions could be imposed by the
League, but it could only recommend that
member nations abide by these.
– Member nations only abided by League
decisions if they furthered their own interests
– US did not join the League of Nations..
The League of Nations

The LON was discredited by its failure in
the following places:
– 1931: Japanese invasion of Manchuria (LON
did nothing to prevent Japan’s action)
– 1935: Italian invasion of Ethiopia: The LON
applied economic sanctions but member
nations refused to abide by them.
– 1935: German rearmament: Ignored by the
LON
– 1936: German militarization of the Rhineland:
the allies protested, but the LON did nothing.
The Failure of Versailles
Many historians believe that German
resentment of Versailles helped start WWII.
 Many Germans believed:

– The war guilt clause was unfair
– It was unfair that terms were dictated to them
without any negotiation
– The treaty was primarily responsible for their
economic distress
– The treaty prevented them from having
adequate protection from neighbors.
Hitler’s Road to War
1935: German rearmament
 1936: German occupation of the
Rhineland
 1938: Austrian anschluss (Germany
took over Austria with the help of
Dollfuss).
 1936-39: German & Italian participation
in the Spanish Civil War.

More Steps Toward War

March 1938: Munich Conference: Hitler was
given the Sudetenland in return for a
promise that he would not annex the rest of
Czechoslovakia.
– Hitler threatened to declare war if he didn’t get
the Sudetenland

Sept. 1938: Hitler invaded Prague &
annexed the rest of Czechoslovakia.
– The allies responded by agreeing to protect
Poland, Romania, & Greece.
War
August 1939: Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression
Pact: 10 year non-aggression pact between
the USSR & Hitler which secretly split
Poland between the two nations and gave
the Baltic states to the USSR (Cleared the
way for Hitler’s invasion of Poland).
 Sept. 1, 1939: Hitler invaded Poland,
quickly conquering it.

– In response, the allies declared war.
WWII
Very little happened in the fall of 1939.
 Winter War: 1940: USSR vs. Finland
 US still remained neutral, but began to
follow “cash & carry policies” for allies.
 June 1940: France fell to the Nazis: Vichy
France created under Marshall Petain.

– US started Lend-Lease

Dec. 7, 1941: Pearl Harbor bombed
– US enters WWII
WWII
By early 1942, both Japanese &
German conquests were astounding & it
appeared that the axis powers might
win the war.
 Allied powers, esp. with the help of the
US, had greater resources & eventually
wore down the axis.

– By 1943, 47 nations were fighting against
the axis powers.
The Russian Front

June 1941: Germany invaded the USSR
and headed for Moscow.
– This action was eventually halted due to
the terrible winter conditions and the
scorched earth policy of the Russians.

June 1942: German offensive aimed at
capturing S. Russia.
– Very successful, at first.
– Finally stopped at the Battle of Stalingrad
The Battle of Stalingrad
The Battle of Stalingrad was the turning
point in the Eastern front of the war.
 After this battle, the Russians were on the
offensive and never lost another major
battle to the Germans.
 Russia captured over 300,000 German
soldiers who became Russian prisoners of
war.
 The Russians entered Berlin in April, 1945.

The Mediterranean Front

After Italian armies in N. Africa were
defeated by the British, Germany greatly
strengthened its Afrika Korps which was
led by General Rommel.
– Rommel was the “desert fox”

June 1942: German troops tried to capture
the Suez Canal.
– After losing many battles, the British finally
defeated Rommel at the Battle of El Alamein
and saved the Suez Canal.
North Africa
General Montgomery (Br) counterattacked in Oct 1942 and forced the axis
troops to retreat westward toward French
Africa.
 American forces under Eisenhower
landed in French N. Africa in Nov. 1942
and the two armies trapped the axis
powers, forcing a surrender in May, 1943.

Italy

July 1943: Allied armies under
Eisenhower’s command invaded Sicily
and won it, despite determined German
resistance.
– The fall of Sicily resulted in Mussolini’s fall in
Italy, but he was reestablished by Hitler in N.
Italy.

As soon as Sicily was secured, the allies
invaded S. Italy and Italy surrendered.
Italy, continued
Despite the surrender of Italy, fighting was
brutal and progress was slow for the allies,
because German troops in Italy fought to
the death.
 The Battle of Anzio was a major turning
point in the Italian campaign, and with
Anzio’s fall, Rome soon was in allied
hands. (June, 1944)
 Mussolini was executed by the Italian
population.

The Sea War
The allies relied on resources from the
US, but military & other supplies were in
danger of never reaching Europe since
travel at sea was imperiled by German
subs.
 Allied innovations, such as radar,
traveling in convoys, and the use of
anti-submarine planes cut down on the
numbers of allied ships sunk.

The Air War
Britain was subject to continuous
bombings early in the war (Battle of
Britain--1940), but Germany suffered great
destruction after 1942 when allied
bombing of Germany increased.
 Allied targets in Germany were usually
factories, railroads, & military & naval
bases.
 Allies also targeted major German cities.

D-Day

June 6, 1944: D-Day
– a huge allied army under the command of
General Eisenhower landed on the beaches of
Normandy and established a beachhead.
– Throughout the following months, the
Germans were gradually pushed east and
France began to be liberated.

Spring 1945: the allies crossed the
Siegfried Line & entered the Rhineland.
VE-Day

May 8, 1945: Victory Europe Day
– The allied armies were advancing from the
western front and the Russian armies had
entered Berlin.
– Germany surrendered unconditionally, after
Hitler committed suicide in his bunker.
– Allied governments around the world
celebrated the victory.
War in the Pacific
June 1942: Battle of Midway: Japanese
fleet suffered a major loss to the US.
 August 1942: US took the offensive &
began the strategy of island hopping.
 Fall 1944: under the command of
General MacArthur, the US invaded the
Philippines & routed the Japanese fleet
at the Battle of Leyte Gulf.

US Victory in the Pacific
By late 1944, the US secured both
control of the air and of the sea.
 Battle of Okinawa: After its seizure,
Okinawa was used to bomb the home
islands of Japan.
 The dropping of atomic bombs on
Hiroshima & Nagasaki brought the
surrender of Japan on August 14, 1945.

– VJ Day (Victory Japan Day)
The Atlantic Charter

Atlantic Charter: August 1940:
– FDR & Churchill met in the Atlantic and
issued a statement by which peace would
eventually be established.
– It called for self-determination of liberated
areas after the war
– It stated that neither the US nor Britain
were interested in territorial gain, as a
result of the war.
The Teheran Conference

The Teheran Conference: Dec. 1943:
– The Big Three: FDR, Churchill, & Stalin
met to coordinate war plans in Europe.
– The W. allies agreed to open a 2nd front in
Europe, but did not do so until June, 1944.
– This caused great animosity on the part of
Stalin who was valiantly fighting off the
Germans in the Southern USSR.
The Yalta Conference

Yalta Conference: Feb. 1945:
– Big three: Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin
– Final decisions were made by the Allies
concerning the impending defeat of Germany.
– Agreed to allow the USSR to liberate Berlin.
– Agreed on the division of Germany after the
war.
– Agreed that liberated areas would be allowed
to hold free elections to choose a new gov’t
after the war.
– Agreed to hold the post-war Nuremberg trials.
The Potsdam Conference

Potsdam Conference: July-August 1945
– Big Three: Stalin, Truman, & Churchill/Atlee
– Agreed to carry out the Yalta provisions
– Agreed to the actual terms of the division of
Germany
– Agreed to adjust the borders of Germany &
Poland to the USSR’s favor
– Agreed to de-Nazify & demilitarize Germany
– Agreed to reparations
– The USSR agreed to enter the Pacific war.