Download Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence
ICS 61
February, 2015
Dan Frost
UC Irvine
[email protected]
Defining Artificial Intelligence
• A computer performing tasks that are
normally thought to require human
intelligence.
• Getting a computer to do in real life what
computers do in the movies.
• In games: NPCs that seem to be human
avatars
Approaches to A. I.
Human
Rational
Thinking
Acting
This model from Russell and Norvig.
Systems that think like humans
Human
Thinking
Acting
Thinking like humans
“Cognitive science”
• Neuron level
• Neuroanatomical level
• Mind level
Rational
Systems that act like humans
Human
Thinking
Acting
Thinking like humans
“Cognitive science”
• Neuron level
• Neuroanatomical level
• Mind level
Acting like humans
• Understand language
• Game AI, control NPCs
• Control the body
• The Turing Test
Rational
Systems that think rationally
Human
Thinking
Acting
Thinking like humans
“Cognitive science”
• Neuron level
• Neuroanatomical level
• Mind level
Acting like humans
• Understand language
• Game AI, control NPCs
• Control the body
• The Turing Test
Rational
Thinking rationally
• Aristotle, syllogisms
• Logic
• “Laws of thought”
Systems that act rationally
Human
Thinking
Acting
Rational
Thinking like humans
“Cognitive science”
• Neuron level
• Neuroanatomical level
• Mind level
Thinking rationally
• Aristotle, syllogisms
• Logic
• “Laws of thought”
Acting like humans
• Understand language
• Game AI, control NPCs
• Control the body
• The Turing Test
Acting rationally
• Business approach
• Results oriented
Tour of A.I. applications
• Natural language processing – translation,
summarization, IR, “smart search”
• Game playing – chess, poker, Jeopardy!
• Of interest to businesses – machine learning,
scheduling
• Artificial Neural Networks
Natural Language Processing
• Uniquely human
• Commercially valuable
• Traditional “big” AI research area.
• Upper left approach (think like humans)
Parse trees
The Vauquois Triangle
prob(eat(cat, fish), 0.9)
eat(cat-species,
fish-species, typically)
S
NP
VP
V NP
Cats eat fish.
Les chats mangent
du poisson.
Parsing challenges
• I saw a man with my telescope.
Parsing challenges
• I saw a man with my telescope.
• Red tape holds up new bridge.
Parsing challenges
• I saw a man with my telescope.
• Red tape holds up new bridge.
• Kids make nutritious snacks.
Parsing challenges
•
•
•
•
I saw a man with my telescope.
Red tape holds up new bridge.
Kids make nutritious snacks.
On the evidence that what we will and won’t
say and what we will and won’t accept can be
characterized by rules, it has been argued
that, in some sense, we “know” the rules of
our language.
Statistical Approach to NLP
• The “Google” way – use lots of data and lots
of computing power.
• Utilize large corpuses of translated texts (e.g.
from the UN).
AI for playing games
• Adversarial
• Controlled environment with robust
interactions.
• Tic tac toe, chess – complete knowledge
• Poker – incomplete knowledge, probabilities
• Jeopardy! – NLP, databases, culture
• Video games – the Turing test revisited
Tic tac toe and minimax
Chess and minimax
• Minimax game trees are too big!
– 10-40 branches at each level
– 10-40 moves to checkmate
•
•
•
•
•
Choose promising branches heuristically.
Evaluate mid-game board positions.
Use libraries of openings.
Specialized end-game algorithms.
Deep Blue beats Garry Kasporov in 1997.
Poker AIs
• Bluffing – theory of mind
• Betting, raising, calling – making decisions
based on expected utility (probability of
results and payoffs)
• Decision making using Monte Carlo method
Jeopardy! and IBM’s Watson
How Watson works
• Picks out keywords in the clue
• Searches Wikipedia, dictionaries, news
articles, and literary works – 200 million
pages, all in memory
• Runs multiple algorithms simultaneously
looking for related phrases.
• Determines best response and its confidence
level.
Jeopardy! and IBM’s Watson
AI in video games – Madden
AI in video games - Halo
AI in video games – Façade
AI in video games
• NPCs (non-player characters) can have goals,
plans, emotions
• NPCs use path finding
• NPCs respond to sounds, lights, signals
• NPCs co-ordinate with each other; squad
tactics
• Some natural language processing
Commercial applications of AI
• Machine learning
– Mitchell: “A computer program is said to learn
from experience E with respect to some class of
tasks T and performance measure P, if its
performance at tasks in T, as measured by P,
improves with experience E.”
– Learning often means finding/creating categories.
• Scheduling
– Often offline, with online updates.
Machine Learning
• Induction: learn from observations
• Learn a function f from a set of input-output
pairs.
x1
0
1
0
1
Input
x2 x3
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
Output
x4 f(x1, x2, x3, x4)
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
• How best to represent a function internally?
Some more classified data to learn
from – should we play golf today?
Decision Trees
Scheduling / timetabling
Scheduling / timetabling
• Courses, nurses, airplanes, factories
• Multiple constraints and complex optimization
function
• Offline – create schedule in advance
• Online – revise schedule as conditions change
• Local search often works well
– Start with an arbitrary schedule
– Make small (local) modifications, choose best
– Repeat; or stop if no local mod is better.
Local search
Recap – Approaches to A. I.
Human
Thinking
Acting
Rational
Thinking like humans
“Cognitive science”
• Neuron level
• Neuroanatomical level
• Mind level
Thinking rationally
• Aristotle, syllogisms
• Logic
• “Laws of thought”
Acting like humans
• Understand language
• Game AI, control NPCs
• Control the body
• The Turing Test
Acting rationally
• Business approach
• Results oriented
Recap – many A.I. applications
• Natural language processing – translation,
summarization, IR, “smart search”
• Game playing – chess, poker, Jeopardy!, video
games – and playing in games (NPCs)
• Machine learning, Scheduling
Recap – Approaches to A. I.
Human
Thinking like humans
• Cognitive science
Thinking • Neuron level
• Neuroanatomical level
• Mind level
Acting
Acting like humans
• Understand language
• Game AI, control NPCs
• Control the body
• The Turing Test
Rational
Thinking rationally
• Aristotle, syllogisms
• Logic
• “Laws of thought”
Acting rationally
• Business approach
• Results oriented
(Artificial) Neural Networks
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Biological inspiration
Synthetic networks
non-Von Neumann
Machine learning
Perceptrons – MATH
Perceptron learning
Varieties of Artificial Neural Networks
Brain - Neurons
10 billion neurons (in humans)
Each one has an electro-chemical state
Brain – Network of Neurons
Each neuron has on average 7,000 synaptic
connections with other neurons.
A neuron “fires” to communicate with neighbors.
Modeling the Neural Network
von Neumann Architecture
Separation of processor and memory.
One instruction executed at a time.
Animal Neural Architecture
von Neumann
• Separate processor and
memory
• Sequential instructions
Birds and bees (and us)
• Each neuron has state and
processing
• Massively parallel,
massively interconnected.
The Percepton
• A simple computational model of a single
neuron.
• Frank Rosenblatt, 1957
• 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 if 𝑤 ∙ 𝑥 − 𝑏 > 0
0 otherwise
• The entries in 𝑤 and 𝑥 are usually real-valued
(not limited to 0 and 1)
The Perceptron
Perceptrons can be combined to make
a network
How to “program” a Perceptron?
• Programming a Perceptron means
determining the values in 𝑤.
• That’s worse than C or Fortran!
• Back to induction: Ideally, we can find 𝑤 from
a set of classified inputs.
Perceptron Learning Rule
Training data:
Input
x1
x2
12
9
-2
8
3
0
9 -0.5
Valid weights:
Output
1 if avg(x1, x2)>x3,
0 otherwise
x3
6
15
3
4
1
0
0
1
𝑤1 = 0.5, 𝑤2 = 0.5, 𝑤3 = −1.0, 𝑏 = 0
Perceptron function:
1 if 0.5𝑥1 + 0.5𝑥2 − 𝑥3 − 0 > 0
0 otherwise
Varieties of Artificial Neural Networks
• Neurons that are not Perceptrons.
• Multiple neurons, often organized in layers.
Feed-forward network
Recurrent Neural Networks
Hopfield Network
On Learning the Past Tense
of English Verbs
• Rumelhart and McClelland, 1980s
On Learning the Past Tense
of English Verbs
On Learning the Past Tense
of English Verbs
Neural Networks
• Alluring because of their biological inspiration
– degrade gracefully
– handle noisy inputs well
– good for classification
– model human learning (to some extent)
– don’t need to be programmed
• Limited
– hard to understand, impossible to debug
– not appropriate for symbolic information processing