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Chapter 35 Behavioral Adaptations to the Environment PowerPoint Lectures for Biology: Concepts and Connections, Fifth Edition – Campbell, Reece, Taylor, and Simon Lectures by Chris Romero Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings Leaping Herds of Herbivores • Impalas of the African savanna – Are very successful as a population, despite heavy pressure from predators Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Impalas exhibit protective behaviors such as grouping – To protect from the numerous carnivores Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF BEHAVIOR 35.1 Behavioral ecologists ask both proximate and ultimate questions • Behavior – Is everything an animal does and how it does it Figure 35.1 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Behavioral ecology – Studies behavior in an evolutionary context • Behavioral ecologists – Consider proximate questions, which focus on the immediate causes of behavior – Consider ultimate questions, which focus on the evolutionary causes of behavior Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Natural selection – Preserves behaviors that enhance fitness Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings 35.2 Early behaviorists used experiments to study fixed action patterns • Lorenz and Tinbergen were the first to demonstrate the importance of innate behavior – Which is performed the same way by all members of a species Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Fixed action patterns (FAPs) – Are innate behaviors that exhibit unchangeable sequences – Ensure that activities essential to survival are performed correctly without practice Figure 35.2 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Sign stimuli – Are simple cues that trigger fixed action patterns Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings 35.3 Behavior is the result of both genes and environmental factors • Certain behaviors in prairie voles – Are under relatively strong genetic control Figure 35.3A Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Studies have shown differences in oxytocin (a hormone) receptors – In the brains of female monogamous prairie voles and promiscuous montane voles Figure 35.3B Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings LEARNING 35.4 Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving • Learning – Is a change in behavior resulting from experience Table 35.4 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Habituation – Is learning to ignore a repeated, unimportant stimulus Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings 35.5 Imprinting is learning that involves innate behavior and experience • Imprinting – Is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period Figure 35.5A Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • For many kinds of birds – Imprinting plays a role in song development Figure 35.5B Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings CONNECTION 35.6 Imprinting poses problems and opportunities for conservation programs • Captive breeding programs for endangered species – Must provide proper imprinting models Figure 35.6 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings 35.7 Animal movement may be a simple response to stimuli or involve spatial learning • A kinesis – Is a random movement in response to a stimulus Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • A taxis – Is a more or less automatic movement directed toward or away from a stimulus Direction of river current Figure 35.7A Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Spatial learning – Involves using landmarks to move through the environment – Is more complex than kineses or taxes Nest 1 No nest Nest 2 Nest Figure 35.7B 3 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings No nest 35.8 Movements of animals may depend on internal maps • Cognitive maps – Are internal representations of spatial relationships of objects in the surroundings Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Migratory animals may move between areas – Using the sun, stars, landmarks, or other cues Paper Ink pad Figure 35.8 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings Funnelshaped cage 35.9 Animals may learn to associate a stimulus or behavior with a response • In associative learning – An animal learns that a particular stimulus or a particular response is linked to a reward or punishment Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • In trial-and-error learning – An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect Figure 35.9 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings 35.10 Social learning involves observation and imitation of others • Social learning involves changes in behavior – That result from the observation and imitation of others Figure 35.10 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings 35.11 Problem-solving behavior relies on cognition • Cognition is the ability of an animal’s nervous system – To perceive, store, process, and use information Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Some animals exhibit problem-solving behavior – Which involves complex cognitive processes Figure 35.11A, B Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings FORAGING AND MATING BEHAVIORS 35.12 Behavioral ecologists use cost-benefit analysis in studying foraging • Foraging includes – Identifying, obtaining, and eating food Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Some animals are generalists – Eating just about anything that is readily available Figure 35.12A Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Other animals are specialists – Eating only specific available foods Figure 35.12B Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Optimal foraging theory predicts that an animal’s feeding behavior – Will maximize energy gain and minimize energy expenditure and risk Figure 35.12C Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings 35.13 Mating behaviors enhance reproductive success • Mating systems may be – Promiscuous, monogamous, or polygamous Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • The needs of offspring and certainty of paternity – Help explain differences in mating systems and parental care by males Figure 35.13 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings 35.14 Mating behavior often involves elaborate courtship rituals • Courtship rituals – Advertise the species, sex, and physical condition of males 1 2 3 Figure 35.14A 4 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • In some species, courtship is a group activity – In which members of one or both sexes choose mates from a group of candidates Figure 35.14B Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY 35.15 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context • Sociobiology studies social behavior – The interactions of two or more animals, in an evolutionary sense Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings 35.16 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources • Animals exhibiting this behavior – Mark and defend their territories Figure 35.16A, B Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings 35.17 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors • Agonistic behavior, including threat, rituals, and sometimes combat – Settles disputes over resources Figure 35.17 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings 35.18 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior • Dominance hierarchies – Partition resources among members of a social group Figure 35.18 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings TALKING ABOUT SCIENCE 35.19 Behavioral biologist Jane Goodall discusses dominance hierarchies and reconciliation behavior in chimpanzees Figure 35.19A Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Chimpanzees – Exhibit dominance hierarchies and reconciliation behavior Figure 35.19B Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings 35.20 Social behavior requires communication between animals • Signaling in the form of sounds, scents, displays, or touches – Provides communication needed for social behavior Figure 35.20A, B Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings 35.21 Altruistic acts can often be explained by the concept of inclusive fitness • Altruism is defined as behavior that reduces an individual’s fitness – While increasing the fitness of others in the population Figure 35.21A Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Altruism can usually be explained by inclusive fitness and kin selection – An animal can propagate its own genes by helping relatives reproduce Figure 35.21B Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • In reciprocal altruism – Individuals do favors that may later be repaid Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings CONNECTION 35.22 Both genes and culture contribute to human social behavior • Human behavior – Has a genetic basis but is quite variable – Is strongly influenced by learning and culture Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Research has suggested that human partners with similar interests – Are more likely to have long, stable relationships Figure 35.22 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings TALKING ABOUT SCIENCE 35.23 Edward O. Wilson promoted the field of sociobiology and is a leading conservation activist • According to sociobiologist Edward O. Wilson – Natural selection underlies many human behaviors, including behaviors that have led to our current biodiversity crisis Figure 35.23 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Benjamin Cummings