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Transcript
1 Contents Introduction History Cybernetics and brain simulation The multitude of programs Evaluating artificial intelligence Specialized languages Transition from lab to life Applications Scope of expert systems Motion and manipulation Social intelligence Creativity Conclusion 2 Introduction Artificial Intelligence, or AI for short, is a combination of computer science, physiology, and philosophy. AI is a broad topic, consisting of different fields, from machine vision to expert systems. The element that the fields of AI have in common is the creation of machines that can "think". One of the most challenging approaches facing experts is building systems that mimic the behavior of the human brain, made up of billions of neurons, and arguably the most complex matter in the universe. The field was founded on the claim that a central property of human beings, intelligence—the sapience of Homo sapiens—can be so precisely described that it can be simulated by a machine. This raises philosophical issues about the nature of the mind and limits of scientific hubris, issues which have been addressed by myth, fiction and philosophy since antiquity. Artificial intelligence has been the subject of breathtaking optimism, has suffered stunning setbacks and, today, has become an essential part of the technology industry, providing the heavy lifting for many of the most difficult problems in computer science. AI research is highly technical and specialized, so much so that some critics decry the "fragmentation" of the field. Subfields of AI are organized around particular problems, the application of particular tools and around longstanding theoretical differences of opinion. The central problems of AI include such traits as reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects. General intelligence (or "strong AI") is still a long-term goal of (some) research, while many researchers no longer believe that this is possible. Artificial Intelligence has come a long way from its early roots, driven by dedicated researchers. The beginnings of AI reach back before electronics, to philosophers and mathematicians such as Boole and others theorizing on principles that were used as the foundation of AI Logic. AI really began to intrigue researchers with the invention of the computer in 1943. The technology was finally available, or so it seemed, to simulate intelligent behavior. Over the next four decades, despite many stumbling blocks, AI has 3 grown from a dozen researchers, to thousands of engineers and specialists; and from programs capable of playing checkers, to systems designed to diagnose disease. History 4 In the middle of the 20th century, a small group of scientists began a new approach to building intelligent machines, based on recent discoveries in neurology, a new mathematical theory of information, an understanding of control and stability called cybernetics, and above all, by the invention of the digital computer, a machine based on the abstraction of mathematical reasoning. The field of modern AI research was founded at a conference on the campus of Dartmouth College in the summer of 1956. Computers were solving word problems in algebra, proving logical theorems and speaking English. By the middle 60s their research was heavily funded by the U.S. Department of Defense, and those involved made these predictions: 1965, H. A. Simon: "Machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do" 1967, Marvin Minsky: "Within a generation ... the problem of creating 'artificial intelligence' will substantially be solved." In the early 80s, AI research was revived by the commercial success of expert systems, a form of AI program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of one or more human experts. By 1985 the market for AI had reached over a billion dollars, and governments started funding again. A few years later, beginning with the collapse of the Lisp Machine market in 1987, AI once again fell into disrepute, and a second, longer lasting AI winter began. In the 90s and early 21st century, AI achieved its greatest successes, albeit somewhat behind the scenes. Artificial intelligence is used for logistics, data mining, medical diagnosis and many other areas throughout the technology industry. 5 Cybernetics and brain simulation The human brain provides inspiration for artificial intelligence researchers, however there is no consensus on how closely it should be simulated. A number of researchers explored the connection between neurology, information theory, and cybernetics. Some of them built machines that used electronic networks to exhibit rudimentary intelligence. Many of these researchers gathered for meetings of the Teleological Society in England. By 1960, this approach was largely abandoned, although elements of it would be revived in the 1980s. 6 The Multitude of programs The next few years showed a multitude of programs, one notably was SHRDLU. SHRDLU was part of the microworlds project, which consisted of research and programming in small worlds (such as with a limited number of geometric shapes). Other programs who appeared later were STUDENT, which could solve algebra story problems, and SIR which could understand simple English sentences. The result of these programs was a refinement in language comprehension and logic. Companies such as Digital Electronics were using XCON, an expert system designed to program the large VAX computers. DuPont, General Motors, and Boeing relied heavily on expert systems Indeed to keep up with the demand for the computer experts, companies such as Teknowledge and Intellicorp specializing in creating software to aid in producing expert systems formed. Other expert systems were designed to find and correct flaws in existing expert systems. 7 Evaluating artificial intelligence Alan Turing proposed a general procedure to test the intelligence of an agent now known as the Turing test. This procedure allows almost all the major problems of artificial intelligence to be tested. However, it is a very difficult challenge and at present all agents fail. Artificial intelligence can also be evaluated on specific problems such as small problems in chemistry, hand-writing recognition and game-playing. Such tests have been termed subject matter expert Turing tests. Smaller problems provide more achievable goals and there are an ever-increasing number of positive results. The broad classes of outcome for an AI test are: optimal: it is not possible to perform better strong super-human: performs better than all humans super-human: performs better than most humans sub-human: performs worse than most humans For example, performance at checkers (draughts) is optimal, performance at chess is super-human and nearing strong super-human, and performance at many everyday tasks performed by humans is sub-human. 8 Specialized languages AI researchers have developed several specialized languages for AI research: IPL was the first language developed for artificial intelligence. It includes features intended to support programs that could perform general problem solving, including lists, associations, schemas (frames), dynamic memory allocation, data types, recursion, associative retrieval, functions as arguments, generators (streams), and cooperative multitasking. Prolog is a declarative language where programs are expressed in terms of relations, and execution occurs by running queries over these relations. Prolog is particularly useful for symbolic reasoning, database and language parsing applications. Prolog is widely used in AI today. STRIPS is a language for expressing automated planning problem instances. It expresses an initial state, the goal states, and a set of actions. For each action preconditions (what must be established before the action is performed) and postconditions (what is established after the action is performed) are specified. AI applications are also often written in standard languages like C++ and languages designed for mathematics, such as MATLAB and Lush. 9 Transition from Lab to Life The impact of the computer technology, AI included was felt. No longer was the computer technology just part of a select few researchers in laboratories. The personal computer made its debut along with many technological magazines. Such foundations as the American Association for Artificial Intelligence also started. Other fields of AI also made there way into the marketplace during the 1980's. One in particular was the machine vision field. The work by Minsky and Marr were now the foundation for the cameras and computers on assembly lines, performing quality control. Although crude, these systems could distinguish differences shapes in objects using black and white differences 10 Applications of AI The Artificial Intelligence Applications Institute has many project that they are working on to make their computers learn how to operate themselves with less human input. To have more functionality with less input is an operation for AI technology. Two of these projects are AUSDA and EGRESS. AUSDA is a program which will exam software to see if it is capable of handling the tasks you need performed. If it isn't able or isn't reliable AUSDA will instruct you on finding alternative software which would better suit your needs. According to AIAI(Artificial Intelligence Applications Institute), the software will try to provide solutions to problems like "identifying the root causes of incidents in which the use of computer software is involved, studying different software development approaches, and identifying aspects of these which are relevant to those root causes producing guidelines for using and improving the development approaches studied, and providing support in the integration of these approaches, so that they can be better used for the development and maintenance of safety critical software." EGRESS is a program which is studying human reactions to accidents. It is trying to make a model of how peoples reactions in panic moments save lives. Although it seems like in tough situations humans would fall apart and have no idea what to do, it is in fact the opposite. Quick Decisions are usually made and are effective but not flawless. These computer models will help rescuers make smart decisions in time of need. AI can't be positive all the time but can suggest actions which we can act out and therefore lead to safe rescues.Artificial intelligence has successfully been used in a wide range of fields including medical diagnosis, stock trading, robot control, law, scientific discovery, video games, toys, and Web search engines. Frequently, when a technique reaches mainstream use it is no longer considered artificial intelligence, sometimes described as the AI effect. It may also become integrated into artificial life. 11 Scope of Expert Systems An expert system is able to do the work of a professional. Moreover, a computer system can be trained quickly, has virtually no operating cost, never forgets what it learns, never calls in sick, retires, or goes on vacation. Beyond those, intelligent computers can consider a large amount of information that may not be considered by humans. Some people once considered an intelligent computer as a possible substitute for human control over nuclear weapons, citing that a computer could respond more quickly to a threat. And many AI developers were afraid of the possibility of certain programs like and the bond that humans were making with the computer. We cannot, however, over look the benefits of having a computer expert. Forecasting the weather, for example, relies on many variables, and a computer expert can more accurately pool all of its knowledge. Still a computer cannot rely on the hunches of a human expert, which are sometimes necessary in predicting an outcome. In some fields such as forecasting weather or finding bugs in computer software, expert systems are sometimes more accurate than humans. But for other fields, such as medicine, computers aiding doctors will be beneficial, but the human doctor should not be replaced. Expert systems have the power and range to aid to benefit, and in some cases replace humans, and computer experts, if used with discretion, will benefit human kind. 12 Motion and manipulation ASIMO uses sensors and intelligent algorithms to avoid obstacles and navigate stairs. Social intelligence KISMET, a robot with rudimentary social skills. Emotion and social skills play two roles for an intelligent agent. It must be able to predict the actions of others, by understanding their motives and emotional states. (This involves elements of game theory, decision theory, as well 13 as the ability to model human emotions and the perceptual skills to detect emotions.) For good human-computer interaction, an intelligent machine also needs to display emotions — at the very least it must appear polite and sensitive to the humans it interacts with. At best, it should have normal emotions itself. Creativity TOPIO, a robot that can play ping-pong, developed by TOSY. A sub-field of AI addresses creativity both theoretically (from a philosophical and psychological perspective) and practically (via specific implementations of systems that generate outputs that can be considered creative). 14 Conclusion First, we should be prepared for a change. Our conservative ways stand in the way of progress. AI is a new step that is very helpful to the society. Machines can do jobs that require detailed instructions followed and mental alertness. AI with its learning capabilities can accomplish those tasks but only if the worlds conservatives are ready to change and allow this to be a possibility. It makes us think about how early man finally accepted the wheel as a good invention, not something taking away from its heritage or tradition. Secondly, we must be prepared to learn about the capabilities of AI. The more use we get out of the machines the less work is required by us. In turn less injuries and stress to human beings. Human beings are a species that learn by trying, and we must be prepared to give AI a chance seeing AI as a blessing, not an inhibition. Finally, we need to be prepared for the worst of AI. Something as revolutionary as AI is sure to have many kinks to work out. There are so many things that can go wrong with a new system so we must be as prepared as we can be for this new technology. However, even though the fear of the machines are there, their capabilities are infinite Whatever we teach AI, they will suggest in the future if a positive outcome arrives from it. AI are like children that need to be taught to be kind, well mannered, and intelligent. If they are to make important decisions, they should be wise. We as citizens need to make sure AI programmers are keeping things on the level. We should be sure they are doing the job correctly, so that no future accidents occur. 15 16