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Semester Final Exam
Study Guide
Chapter One
Intro to Chemistry
1.1 Story of Two Substances
Vocab:
• Chemistry
• substance
Key Concepts:
• Chemistry is the study
of matter.
• Chemicals are also
known as substances.
1.3 Scientific Methods
Vocab:
• Conclusion
• Control
• Dependent Variable
• Experiment
• Hypothesis
• Independent Variable
• Qualitative Data
• Scientific Law
• Scientific Method
• Theory
Key Concepts:
• Scientific methods are
systematic approaches to
problem solving.
• Qualitative data describe an
observation, numbers.
• Independent variables are
changed in an experiment.
Dependent variables change in
response to independent
variables.
• A theory is a hypothesis that is
supported by many
experiments.
Chapter 2
Analyzing Data
2.1 Units and Measurements
Vocab:
• Base unit
• Density
• Derived unit
• Kelvin
• Gram
• Liter
• Meter
• Second
Key Concepts:
• SI measurements units allow
scientists to report data to other
scientists.
• Adding prefixes to SI units extends
the range of possible
measurements.
• To get Kelvin it equals the Celsius
temperature plus 273
• Volume and density have derived
units. Density which is a ratio of
mass to volume, can be used to
identify an unknown sample of
matter.
D=mass/volume
2.2 Scientific Notation and
Dimensional Analysis
Vocab:
Key Concepts:
• Conversion factor
• A number expressed in scientific
notation is written as a coefficient
• Dimensional analysis
between 1 and 10 multiplied by 10
• Scientific notation
raised to a power.
• To add or subtract numbers in
scientific notation, must have same
exponent
• To multiply or divide in scientific
notation, multiply or divide the
coefficients and then add or
subtract exponents respectively.
• Dimensional analysis uses
conversion factors to solve
problems
2.3 Uncertainty in Data
Key Concepts:
Vocab:
• An accurate measurement is close to the
• Accuracy
accepted value. A set of precise
measurements shows little variation
• Error
• The measurement device determines the
• Percent error
degree of precision possible.
• Precision
• Significant figure • Error is the difference between the measured
value and the accepted value.
– Error = experimental value – accepted value
– Percent error = l error l / accepted value * 100
• The number of significant figures reflects the
precision of reported data
• Calculations are often rounded to the correct
number of significant figures.
2.4 Representing Data
Vocab:
• graph
Key Concepts:
• Circle graphs show parts of a whole. Bar
graphs show how a factor varies with time,
location, or temperature.
• Independent (x-axis) variables and dependent
(y-axis) variables can be related in a linear or a
nonlinear manner. The slope of a straight line
is defined as rise/run.
– Slope
𝑦2 −𝑦1 Δ𝑦
=
𝑥2−𝑥1 Δ𝑥
• Because line graph data are considered
continuous, you can interpolate between data
points or extrapolate beyond them.
CHAPTER 3
Matter
3.1 Properties of Matter
Vocab:
• Chemical property
• Extensive property
• Gas
• Intensive property
• Liquid
• Solid
• Vapor
• States of matter
• Physical property
Key Concepts:
• The three common states of
matter are solid, liquid, and gas.
• Physical properties can be
observed without altering a
substance’s composition.
• Chemical properties describe a
substance’s ability to combine
with or change into one or more
new substances.
• External conditions can affect
both physical and chemical
properties.
3.2 Changes in Matter
Vocab:
Key Concepts:
• Chemical change
• A physical change alters the physical
properties of a substance without
• Law of conservation
changing its composition
of mass
• A chemical change/reaction involves
• Phase change
a change in a substances’
• Physical change
composition.
• In a chemical reaction reactants form
products
• The law of conservation of mass
states that mass is neither created
nor destroyed during a chemical
reaction it is conserved.
3.3 Mixtures of Matter
Key Concepts:
Vocab
• A mixture is a physical blend
• Distillation
of two or more pure
• Filtration
substances in any proportion
• Heterogeneous mixture• Solutions are homogeneous
• Homogeneous mixture mixtures
• Mixture
• Mixtures can be separated by
physical means. Common
• Solution
separation techniques include
filtration, distillation,
crystallization, sublimation,
and chromatography.
3.4 Elements and Compounds
Key Concepts:
• Elements cannot be broken down into simpler
Vocab
substances.
• Elements are organized in the periodic table of the
• Compound
elements.
• Element
• Compounds are chemical combinations of two or
• Law of definite more elements component elements.
• The law of definite proportions states that a
proportions
compound is always composed of the same
• Law of multiple elements in the same proportions
proportions
• Percent by mass
•
• Periodic table
– Percent by mass =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
x 100
The law of multiple proportions states that if
elements form more than one compound those
compounds will have compositions that are wholenumber multiples of each other.
Chapter 4
The structure of the Atom
4.1 Early Ideas about Matter
Vocab:
• Dalton’s atomic
theory
4.2 Defining the Atom
Vocab:
• Atom
• Electron
• Neutron
• Nucleus
• Proton
Key Concepts:
• An atom is the smallest particle
of an element that maintains
the properties of that element
• Electrons have a 1– charge
protons have a 1+ and
neutrons have no charge
• An atom consists mostly of
empty space surrounding the
nucleus
4.3 How Atoms Differ
Vocab:
• Atomic mass
• Atomic mass unit
• Atomic number
• Isotope
• Mass number
Key Concepts:
• The atomic number of an atom is given
by its number of protons. The mass
number of an atom is the sum of its
neutrons and protons.
– Atomic # = # of protons = # of electrons
– Mass # = atomic # + # of neutrons
• Atoms of the same elements with
different numbers of neutrons are
called isotopes
• The atomic mass of an element is
weighted average of the masses of all
its naturally occurring isotopes
4.4 Unstable Nuclei and Radioactive
Decay
Vocab:
• Alpha particle
• Alpha radiation
• Beta particle
• Beta radiation
• Gamma ray
• Nuclear equations
• Nuclear reaction
• Radiation
• Radioactive Decay
Key Concepts:
• Chemical reactions involve
changes in the electrons
surrounding an atom. Nuclear
reactions involve changes in the
nucleus of an atom
• There are three types of radiation:
alpha (charge of 2+), beta (charge
of 1-) and gamma (no charge).
• The neutron to proton ratio of an
atom’s nucleus determines its
stability.
Chapter 24
Nuclear Chemistry
24.1 Nuclear Radiation
Key Concepts:
Vocab:
• Penetrating power • Radioisotopes emit radiation to
attain more-stable configurations
• Radioisotope
24.2 Radioactive Decay
Vocab:
• Band of stability
• Half-life
• Radioactive decay
series
• Radiochemical dating
• Transmutation
Key Concepts:
• The conversion of an atom of an atom
of another by radioactive decay
processes is called transmutation
• Atomic # and Mass # are conserved in
nuclear reactions
• A half life is the time required for half
of the atoms in radioactive sample to
decay
– 𝑁=
1 𝑛
𝑁0
𝑜𝑟
2
1
𝑁0 2
𝑛/𝑇
𝑁=
• Radiochemical dating is a technique for
determining the age of an object by
measuring the amount of certain
radioisotopes remaining in the object
24.3 Nuclear Reactions
Vocab
• Critical mass
• Nuclear fission
• Nuclear fusion
• Thermonuclear
reaction
• Induced
transmutation
• Transuranium
element
Key Concepts
• Induced transmutation is the
bombardment of nuclei with
particles in order to create
new elements
• In a chain reaction one
reaction induces others to
occur. A sufficient mass of
fissionable material is
necessary to initiate the chain
reaction.
Chapter 5
Electrons in Atoms
5.1 Light and Quantized Energy
Vocab
• Amplitude
• Atomic emission spectrum
• Electromagnetic radiation
• Electromagnetic spectrum
• Frequency
• Photoelectric effect
• Photon
• Planck’s constant
• Quantum
• Wave length
Key Concepts
• All waves are defined by their wave
lengths frequencies amplitudes and
speeds
– 𝑐 = ℷ𝑣
•
•
•
In a vacuum all electromagnetic
waves travel at the speed of light
All electromagnetic waves have both
and particle properties
Matter emits and absorbs energy
quanta
– 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = ℎ𝑣
•
White light produces a continuous
spectrum an elements emission
spectrum consists of series of lines
and individual colors.
5.2 Quantum Theory and The Atom
Vocab:
• Atomic orbital
• Energy sublevel
• Ground state
• Heisenberg uncertainty principle
• Principal energy level
• Principal quantum number
• Quantum mechanical model of
atom
• Quantum number
Key Concepts:
• Bohr’s atomic model attributes hydrogen's
emission spectrum to electrons dropping
from higher energy to lower energy orbits
– ∆𝐸 =
𝐸ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟−𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 − 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟−𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑠
= 𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝑣
• The quantum mechanical model assumes
that electrons have wave properties
• Electrons occupy 3-D regions of space called
atomic orbitals
5.3 Electron Configurations
Vocab:
• Aufbau principle
• Electron configuration
• Electron dot structure
• Hund’s rule
• Pauli exclusion principle
• Valence electron
Key Concepts:
• The arrangement of electrons in an
atom is called the atom’s electron
configuration
• Electron configurations are defined
by the aAufbau principle the Pauli
exclusion principle and Hund’s rule
• An element’s valence electrons
determine the chemical properties
of the element
• Electron configurations can be
represented using orbital diagrams
electron configuration notation
and electron dot structures.
Chapter 6
The Periodic Table and
Periodic Law
6.1 Development of the Modern
Periodic Table
Vocab:
• Actinide series
• Alkali metal
• Alkaline earth metal
• Group
• Halogen
• Inner transition metal
• Lanthanide series
• Metal
• Metalloid
• Noble gas
• Nonmetal
• Period
• Periodic law
• Representative element
• Transition element
• Transition metal
Key Concepts:
• The elements were first organized by
increasing atomic mass, which led to
inconsistencies. Later, they were
organized by increasing atomic number.
• The periodic law states that when the
elements are arranged by increasing
atomic number, there is a periodic
repetition of their chemical and physical
properties.
• The periodic table organizes the element
into periods (rows) and groups (columns);
elements with similar properties are in
the same group.
• Elements are classifies as either metals,
nonmetals, or metalloids.
6.2 Classification of the Elements
Vocab:
Key Concepts:
• The periodic table has four
blocks (s, p, d, f).
• Elements within a group have
similar chemical properties.
• The group number for
elements in groups 1 and 2
equal the element’s number
of valence electrons.
• The energy level of an atom’s
valence electrons equals its
period number.
6.3 Periodic Trends
Vocab:
• Electronegativity
• Ion
• Ionization energy
• Octet rule
Key Concepts:
• Atomic and ionic radii decrease from
left to right across a period, and
increase as you move down a group.
• Ionization energies generally increase
from left to right across a period, and
decrease as you move down a group.
• The octet rule states the atoms gain,
lose, or share electrons to acquire a
full set of eight valence electrons.
• Electronegativity generally increases
from left to right across a period and
decreases as you move down a group.
Chapter 7
Ionic Compounds and
Metals
7.1 Ion Formation
Vocab:
• Anion
• Cation
• Chemical bond
Key Concepts:
• A chemical bond is the force
that hold two atoms together.
• Some atoms from ions to gain
stability. This stable
configuration involves a
complete outer energy level,
usually consisting of eight
valence electrons.
• Ions are formed by the loss or
gain of electrons.
• The number of protons remains
unchanged during ion
formation.
7.2 Ionic Bonds and Ionic Compounds
Vocab:
• Electrolyte
• Ionic bond
• Ionic compound
Key Concepts:
• Ionic compounds contain ionic
bonds formed by the attraction
of oppositely charged ions.
• Ions in an ionic compound are
arranged in a repeating pattern
known as a crystal lattice.
• Ionic compounds properties are
related to ionic bond strength.
• Ionic compounds are
electrolytes; they conduct an
electric current in the liquid
phase and in aqueous solution.
7.3 Names and Formulas of Ionic
Compounds
Vocab:
• Formula unit
• Monatomic ion
• Oxidation number
• Polyatomic ion
Key Concepts:
• A formula unit gives the ratio of
cations to anions in the ionic
compound.
• A monatonic ion is formed from one
atom, the charge of a monatomic ion
is its oxidation number.
• Roman numerals indicate the
oxidation number of cations having
multiple possible oxidation states.
• Polyatomic ions consist of more that
one atom and act as a single unit.
• To indicate more than one polyatomic
ion in a chemical formula, place
parentheses around the polyatomic
ion and use a subscript.
7.4 Metallic Bonds and the Properties
of Metals
Vocab:
• Alloy
• Metallic bond
Key Concepts:
• A metallic bond forms when
metal cations attract freely
moving, delocalized valence
electrons.
• Metal alloys are formed when
a metal is mixed with one or
more other elements
Chapter 8
Covalent Bonding
8.1 The Covalent Bond
Vocab:
• Covalent bond
• Lewis structure
• Molecule
Key Concepts:
• Covalent bonds form when atoms
share one or more pairs of
electrons
• Sharing one, two, and three pairs
of electrons forms single double,
and triple covalent bonds
• Bond length is measured nucleus
to nucleus. Bond dissociation
energy is needed to break a
covalent bond
8.2 Naming Molecules
Vocab:
•
Key Concepts:
• Names of covalent
molecular compounds
include prefixes for the
number of each atom
present. The final letter of
the prefix is dropped if the
element name begins with
a vowel
8.3 Molecular Structures
Vocab:
• Coordinate covalent
bond
• Resonance
• Structural formula
Key Concepts:
• Different models can be
used to represent molecules
• Resonance occurs when
more than one valid Lewis
structure exists for the same
molecule
• Exceptions to the octet rule
occur in some molecules
8.4 Molecular Shapes
Vocab:
• Hybridization
• VSEPR model
• VSEPR model theory
states that electron pairs
repel each other and
determine both shape of
and bond angles in a
molecule
• Hybridization explains the
observed shapes of
molecules by the
presence of equivalent
hybrid orbitals.
8.5 Electronegativity and Polarity
Vocab:
• Polar covalent
bond
Key Concepts:
• The electronegativity difference
determines the character of a bond
between atoms
• Polar bonds occur when electrons
are not shaped equally forming a
dipole
• The spatial arrangement of polar
bonds in a molecule determines the
overall polarity of a molecule
• Molecules attract each other by
weak intermolecular forces.