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Impacts of acid rain and ozone on vegetation in the Greater Mekong Sub region Lisa Emberson Patrick Büker, Tim Morrissey, Kevin Hicks, Johan Kuylenstierna, Steve Cinderby, Mike Ashmore, David Simpson, Juha-Pekka Tuovinen, Mark Zunckel, Miles Sowden, Barabara Badu, Vanessa Walsh [email protected] Talk outline Why worry about air pollution impacts on vegetation ? Air pollution risk assessment methods for application in GMS : - Modelling methods - Experimental methods - Bio-monitoring methods Application incorporating additional stresses ? - Climate change - Hydrological stress [email protected] Talk outline Why worry about air pollution impacts on vegetation ? Air pollution risk assessment methods for application in GMS : - Modelling methods - Experimental methods - Bio-monitoring methods Application incorporating additional stresses ? - Climate change - Hydrological stress [email protected] Why worry about air pollution impacts on vegetation ? Air pollutant Gas, particle, aerosol, solute Stomatal flux/uptake/deposition Direct Non-stomatal flux/uptake/deposition External plant surfaces Indirect Soil [email protected] Why worry about air pollution impacts on vegetation ? Pollutant Impact mode Impact Scale Ozone (O3) Direct (stomates) Visible injury, growth & yield reductions, chemical quality Regional Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Direct (stomates & cuticle) * Visible injury, growth & yield reductions Local Indirect Soil acidification (growth & yield reductions) Regional Direct (stomates) * Growth & yield reductions Local Indirect Soil acidification (growth & yield reductions) Regional Hydrogen Fluorides (HF) Direct (stomates & cuticle) Visible injury, growth & yield reductions. Fluorosis in grazing animals Local Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) Direct **Phytotoxicity, abrasive action, reduced light transmission, occlusion of stomates Local / Regional Nitrogen oxides (NOx) * At low concentrations can stimulate growth via fertilization effect ** Dependant upon chemical composition of particles [email protected] Why worry about air pollution impacts on vegetation ? Pollutant Impact mode Impact Scale Ozone (O3) Direct (stomates) Visible injury, growth & yield reductions, chemical quality Regional Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Direct (stomates & cuticle) * Visible injury, growth & yield reductions Local Indirect Soil acidification (growth & yield reductions) Regional Direct (stomates) * Growth & yield reductions Local Indirect Soil acidification (growth & yield reductions) Regional Hydrogen Fluorides (HF) Direct (stomates & cuticle) Visible injury, growth & yield reductions. Fluorosis in grazing animals Local Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) Direct **Phytotoxicity, abrasive action, reduced light transmission, occlusion of stomates Local / Regional Nitrogen oxides (NOx) * At low concentrations can stimulate growth via fertilization effect ** Dependant upon chemical composition of particles [email protected] Why worry about air pollution impacts on vegetation ? Decline of Veitch’s silver fir and maries fir. Japan (courtesy of T. Izuta) Annual average pH of P Rodhe et al. 2002 Soil sensitivity to acidic deposition Kuylenstierna et al. 2001 Observational evidence of soil acidification in China similar to Europe The decrease in soil pH between 1927 to 1982-83 in a beech and spruce forest in southern Sweden (Hallbäcken and Tamm, 1985) Change in soil pH 1960 – 1994 at Zhurongfeng in S. China Dai et al. 1998 No real evidence in other parts of Asia [email protected] Why worry about air pollution impacts on vegetation ? O3 injury to rice, Pakistan (courtesy of A. Wahid) Current surface ozone in 2000 Europe United states South East Asia 36.6 ppb ± 4.2 38.7 ppb ± 4.9 31.5 ppb ± 4.4 Dentener et al. (2006) Δ in surface ozone between 2000 and 2030 current legislation scenario Europe United states South East Asia CLE2000 – CLE2030 +1.8 ± 1.5 +1.3 ± 2.4 +3.8 ± 0.7 Dentener et al. (2006) Talk outline Why worry about air pollution impacts on vegetation ? Air pollution risk assessment methods for application in GMS : - Modelling methods – Acid Deposition - Experimental methods - Bio-monitoring methods Application incorporating additional stresses ? - Climate change - Hydrological stress [email protected] What methods exist to estimate risk? 1. Critical Load approach: deposition compared to threshold (CL) 2. Dynamic models – limited application except in China for some sites [email protected] Exceedance of critical loads a static expression of risk but is it real? time dimension issue: acidification has not occurred for long enough for clear impacts to be seen? Estimated exceedance of acidification CL of S only (Kuylenstierna et al. 2000) [email protected] “Serious acidification effects not likely to occur in next few decades in Asia except in China” Henning Rodhe [email protected] Estimates time development of acidification as a function of continued acidic deposition and variation in soil sensitivity over time Hicks et al. in prep [email protected] Talk outline Why worry about air pollution impacts on vegetation ? Air pollution risk assessment methods for application in GMS : - Modelling methods - Experimental methods – surface ozone - Bio-monitoring methods Application incorporating additional stresses ? - Climate change - Hydrological stress [email protected] Assessing O3 impacts to species/ cultivars Response Dose Experimental Methods Disturbance • • • • • Controlled exposure Free Air Concentration Enrichment (FACE) Temporary chambers Open Top Chambers Solardomes Indoor fumigation chambers / glasshouses • individual pollutants & pollutant combinations • establish dose response relationships • pollutant interactions with other stresses Experimental Methods Disturbance • • • • • Controlled exposure Free Air Concentration Enrichment (FACE) Temporary chambers Open Top Chambers Solardomes Indoor fumigation chambers / glasshouses • individual pollutants & pollutant combinations • establish dose response relationships • pollutant interactions with other stresses Assessing O3 impacts to species/ cultivars Response Yield Nutritional quality Visible injury Dose Concentration Flux Ozone characterization indices 100 12000 10000 80 8000 (53 ppb) 60 6000 40 4000 20 AOT40 (ppb.hrs) Ozone conc (ppb) Growing season 2000 0 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Year day * Annual mean * 7hr growing season mean * 7hr annual mean * AOT40 7 hr mean dose response relationships for different species including rice cf. Wang & Mauzerall 2004 AOT40 relationship with wheat (Triticum aestivum) grain yield (Fuhrer, 1996) • Most robust AOT40 relationship • 17 experiments, 6 countries, 10 growing seasons, 10 cultivars • Critical Level : AOT40 of 3, 000 ppb.h. corresponding to 5% yield loss (99% confidence) calculated over a 3 month growing period Talk outline Why worry about air pollution impacts on vegetation ? Air pollution risk assessment methods for application in GMS : - Experimental methods - Modelling methods – surface ozone - Bio-monitoring methods Application incorporating additional stresses ? - Climate change - Hydrological stress [email protected] How can we estimate air pollution impacts? Dose-Response Relationships Modelling methods 3 month AOT40 simulations calculated with the MATCH model Engardt pers. comm., Emberson et al. in press Modelling methods BUT Are these areas identified as being at risk from ground level ozone correct? How good is the provisional risk assessment modelling? [email protected] Modelling methods How good is the regional ozone concentration data? What are the receptors most at risk? How well can AQGs protect local species and varieties? Talk outline Why worry about air pollution impacts on vegetation ? Air pollution risk assessment methods for application in GMS : - Experimental methods - Modelling methods - Bio-monitoring methods – surface ozone Application incorporating additional stresses ? - Climate change - Hydrological stress [email protected] Bio-monitoring Bio-monitoring and Chemical Protectant Studies Buse et al. 2002/2003 • Established bio-indicator in Europe and North America • Sensitive and resistant clones so can assess magnitude of air pollution impacts on visible injury & biomass. Bio-monitoring Bio-monitoring and Chemical Protectant Studies Structural formula for N-(2-(2-oxo-1imadazolidinyl)ethyl)-N’-phenylurea abbreviated as EDU for ethylenediurea Pakistan soybean cv. NARC-1 showing protective effect of EDU at a roadside rural site in Lahore, Pakistan (photo courtesy of A. Wahid) EDU suppresses acute and chronic ozone injury on a variety of plants under ambient O3 conditions (Godzik & Manning, 1998) Bio-monitoring All Bio-monitoring sites: • Microloggers for ToC & RH % (30 min) • Ozone passive samplers (2 week) At select sites: • Solar radiation, photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) • Continuous ozone monitoring (hourly) • Soil water content • Plant physiological parameters e.g. Photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, leaf area index, biochemical analysis (e.g. heavy metals, protein content….) Bio-monitoring RAPIDC Project funded by Sida “Regional Air Pollution in Developing Countries” Europe & North America Provisional Risk Assessment Clover clone bio-monitoring e.g. Maize staple Pulse 6 sites EDU chemical protectant study Southern Africa South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique Zambia, Tanzania South Asia Wheat Mung bean 5 sites India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal Bio-monitoring How good is the regional ozone concentration data? Passive samplers, O3 monitors What are the receptors most at risk? Local agricultural expertise How well can AQGs protect local species and varieties? Bio-monitoring evaluation of damage occurring within and outside provisionally assessed risk areas Bio-monitoring How good is the regional ozone concentration data? Passive samplers, O3 monitors What are the receptors most at risk? Local agricultural expertise How well can AQGs protect local species and varieties? Bio-monitoring evaluation of damage occurring within and outside provisionally assessed risk areas Modelling methods • Species type / cultivar Climate Precipitation patterns Sunshine hours Higher temperatures Atmospheric humidity Soil Moisture deficit Dose modifiers Flux Vegetation sensitivity Cropping patterns (growing season) Pollutant dispersion O3 formation • Agronomic practices Irrigation Fertilizer Breeding programmes (selecting increased / reduced crop sensitivity) Assessing O3 impacts to species/ cultivars AOTx “Concentration” AFstY “Flux” Surface Resistance Rsur Bio-monitoring The Air Pollution Crop Effect (APCEN) network 1. Advise on methodological development 2. To capacity build in the regions –provide technical support to the bio-monitoring campaigns 3. To help in translation of science to policy RAPIDC Regional air pollution in developing countries [email protected] The APCEN Network Region Network Members Africa 8 Egypt, Kenya, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe 43 India, Japan, Nepal, Pakistan, P.R. China, Philippines, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand 16 Australia, Chile, Sweden, UK, USA Asia The Americas, Europe and Australia Countries / regions represented The APCEN network 2nd APCEN workshop held in Stellenbosch, South Africa 2006 Talk outline Why worry about air pollution impacts on vegetation ? Air pollution risk assessment methods for application in GMS : - Experimental methods - Modelling methods - Bio-monitoring methods Application incorporating additional stresses ? - Climate change - Hydrological stress [email protected] Why worry about surface ozone concentrations ? Δ in surface ozone between 2030clim change and 2030 current legislation scenario and projected 2030 climate South East Asia CLE2030c – CLE2030 -0.2 ± 0.6 Dentener et al. (2006) Fuhrer et al. 2005 • FACE soybean (glycine max) experiment • Increased O3 concentrations over two growing seasons by 23 % - mimicking projections for 2050 O3 • Resulted in 20% loss in seed yield • Results suggest even greater losses than those previously predicted by closed chamber studies O3 Morgan et al. 2006 Rsto = 1/ (gmax * fphen * flight * max {fmin, (ftemp * fVPD * fSWP)}) Generic gage function 1.2 Gmax mmol O3 m-2 s-1 Relative g 1 * Phenology 0.8 0.6 0.4 gage_c gage_b 0.2 gage_a 0 0 100 200 300 Year day 1 0.8 0.8 Relative g Relative g 1 0.6 glight = 1 - exp (- * PAR) 0.4 0.2 0.6 T_min 0.4 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 10 Irradiance (umol m-2 s-1 PAR) Generic gVPD function 1 1 0.8 0.8 0.6 VPD_min VPD_max 0.4 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (oC) 40 Generic gSWP functions Relative g Relative g T_max T_opt 0.2 0 VPD ToC Generic gtemp function Generic glight function PAR 0.6 SMD SWP_min SWP_max 0.4 0.2 0.2 0 0 0 1 2 3 VPD (kPa) 4 5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 Soil water potential (MPa) 0 Talk outline Why worry about air pollution impacts on vegetation ? Air pollution risk assessment methods for application in GMS : - Experimental methods - Modelling methods - Bio-monitoring methods Application incorporating additional stresses ? - Climate change - Hydrological stress [email protected] Future applications ? 1000.00 Modelled ozone concentrations across Southern Africa 0.00 -1000.00 -2000.00 100 80 -3000.00 60 40 -4000.00 -5000.00 -1000.00 0.00 1000.00 2000.00 Zunckel et al 2004 3000.00 Future applications ? Growing season length and risk of drought in southern Africa PEt : AEt Soil water PEt & AEt f(Ra, Rb, Rsto) VPD & Net radiation Relative yield P Ei Drought related yield losses O3 related yield losses Compare ozone and drought stress to maize across region Conclusions Acid deposition may be a problem in the future in parts of south east Asia O3 is likely to be already causing damage to crops and forests in the GMS ? O3 concentrations are projected to increase relatively rapidly over the next 20 to 50 years in this region As such, there is an urgent need to develop methods for O3 risk assessment for the GMS region : These methods can be founded on existing experimental and modelling techniques which would ideally be supported by bio-monitoring evaluation In addition, methodological selection and development should ensure assessments can incorporate additional stresses such as climate change and hydrological related stresses [email protected] Acknowledgements This research is supported by Sida and Defra Related projects are also supported by the EU and START PACOM. [email protected]