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Bioweapons William R. Barnett PUBH 521 International Public Health Bioweapons Why discuss bioweapons? Bioweapons have historically been used in times of war and in terrorist tactics. In a post-911 world, there has been much emphasis put on bioterrorism and suspected biological weapons programs being pursued by other nations. Biological weapons are a global concern, which can threaten society, the environment, and the political or economic stability of many nations. Introduction What are bioweapons? Disease-producing microorganisms or biologically derived toxins as weapons. Bioweapons are used to kill, injure, or damage: Humans Animals Plants Equipment Introduction con’t Common terms: Biowarfare Bioterrorism Bioweapons used against civilians to disrupt. State-sponsored Bioweapons used against the military to destroy. ‘Rogue’ states Sub-state sponsored Terrorist groups Potential biological agents Category A: Anthrax Smallpox Plague Tularemia Botulinum Paralysis of breathing muscles Viral hemorrhagic fevers Source:CDC Lassa fever Rift valley fever Ebola hemorrhagic fever Marburg hemorrhagic fever Potential biological agents con’t Anthrax: Bacillus anthracis 3 forms: Cutaneous Inhalation Ulceration on the skin Flu-like symptoms Chest discomfort Shortness of breath Gastrointestinal Nausea Loss of appetite Bloody diarrhea Potential biological agents con’t Smallpox: Variola virus Symptoms: Fever Malaise Head and body aches Rash Pustules Scabs Last US case in 1949 Last worldwide case in 1977 Potential biological agents con’t Plague: Yersinia pestis 3 forms: Pneumonic Bubonic Fever Weakness Chest pain Fever Swollen and tender lymph glands Septicemic Fever Chills Abdominal pain Bleeding into skin and organs Potential biological agents con’t Tularemia: Francisella tularensis Symptoms: Sudden fever Chills Headaches Diarrhea Muscle and joint pain Chest pain Ulcers in skin or mouth Potential biological agents con’t Category B: Q fever (Coxiella burnetii) Brucellosis (Brucella suis) Pneumonia and pulmonary abcesses Ricin toxin Severe infections of CNS or heart lining Glanders (Burkholderia mallei) Pneumonia Respiratory distress leading to pulmonary edema Clostridium perfringens toxin Staphylococcal enterotoxin B Potential biological agents con’t Category C: Nipah virus Hantavirus Respiratory illness, encephalitis, and coma Pulmonary edema Tick-borne encephalitis Yellow fever Multidrug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) Historical biowarfare Throughout history, biological agents have been used against combatants in military engagements. Scientific advances in microbiology during the late 19th century led to the development of destructive biological weapons. Two world wars gave countries a chance to enhance bioweapons capabilities and eventually use these weapons. Early biowarfare Contamination of food and water: Projecting plague-ridden bodies: 6th century B.C. – Assyrians poisoned wells with rye ergot. 1346 – Plague-ridden bodies were catapulted over the walls in the city of Kaffra. Distribution of infected materials: 15th century – Smallpox infected blankets given to South American natives by Pizarro. 1754 to 1767 - Blankets contaminated with smallpox were distributed to Native Americans by the British. Source: Bioterrorism Preparedness Program (2002) World War I Technology from Pasteur and Koch: Louis Pasteur Germ theory of disease Robert Koch Koch’s postulates Infected livestock and animal supplies: Germany developed bioweapons to infect livestock and animal feed: Anthrax Glanders No bioweapon attacks on humans Source: Hilleman, 2002 World War I con’t Cavalry during WWI Geneva Protocol (1925) An international treaty, which prohibited the use of chemical and biological weapons in warfare. No prohibition for the development and stockpiling of chemical and biological weapons. Many biological weapons programs were developed after the treaty: United States (1943) USSR (1926) United Kingdom (1936) Japan (1932) Many other nations World War II Major participants Japan: USSR: Prior to WWII, Japan used plague, cholera, anthrax and other pathogens during the invasion of China. An estimated 1,000 to 222,000 deaths from attacks and 5,000 to 10,000 deaths from experimental work. Focused on typhus and plague. United States: Developed chemical herbicides and delivery systems for anthrax. World War II con’t Minor participants UK and Canada: Researched bioweapons against animals and crops. Anthrax use against cattle (“cattle-cakes”). No participation Germany: The offensive use of biological weapons was forbidden. Germany had a mortal fear of the US bioweapons capability. World War II con’t Japanese rounding up POWs in China. Biological weapons programs After WWII, many countries began to increase bioweapon production. A ‘cold war’ era contributed to further advancements in biological warfare. There has been much speculation about the bioweapon capability of other nations. US Biological Warfare Program Began in 1943 at Fort Detrick, Maryland. In 1945, the US developed as small-particle-size aerosol system to deliver pathogens. The US dropped war crimes against the Japanese in return for data on experiments against human subjects. In 1950, wheat rust was made available to be used against the Soviet Union prior to the Korean War. The Pine Bluff Arsenal in Arkansas began producing Brucella suis in 1954. The bioweapons program continued into the late 1960’s. Source: Roffey et. al., 2002 US Biological Warfare Program con’t Weaponized: Bacteria Weapon systems: Virus Anthrax Tularemia Brucellosis Q fever Venezuelan equine encephalitis Yellow fever Various toxins and antiplant pathogens Source: Hilleman, 2002 Sergeant missile warhead Spray dispenser for drones Wet and dry spray tanks for jet planes Cluster bombs Bomblet dispenser for long range bombers US Biological Weapons Program con’t Sergeant Missile System US Biological Warfare Program con’t Nixon’s order (1969): Ordered discontinuance of bioweapons activity and the destruction of all bioweapons stockpiles. Why? US officials felt that biological weapons did not have an military advantage against the enemy. Results The Soviet bioweapons program increased as a result of the US decision to stop offensive research. The FBI organized a disinformation campaign to suggest the US had a secret bioweapons program. The United States still maintains a defensive research facility at Fort Detrick, MD. Source: Roffey et. al., 2002 US Biological Weapons Program con’t USAMRIID at Fort Detrick, MD USSR Biological Warfare Program The program was initiated in 1926. Research was carried out on gas gangrene, tetanus, botulism, and plague. Methods were developed to deliver these biological agents through aircraft and artillery shells. Captured Japanese and German researchers and equipment were used to enhance the program. The bioweapons program continued well into the early 1990’s. USSR Biological Warfare Program con’t Reported to be researched, developed, and some weaponized by 1993: Bacteria: Anthrax Tularemia Brucellosis Plague Glanders Virus: Smallpox Various pathogens that cause encephalitis and hemorrhagic fevers Research on genetically modified agents Source:Hilleman, 2002 Other biological warfare programs Iraq: Began in 1974 Agents studied were: Clostridium botulinum Bacillus anthracis Influenza virus Restarted in 1979 Expanded in 1986 to include toxins: Aflatoxin Trichothecene mycotoxins Ricin Source:Roffey et. al., 2002 Other biological weapons program con’t UN inspectors in Iraq Other biological warfare programs con’t Weaponized: Bacteria Researched: Anthrax Clostridium perfringens Antiplant agents Toxins Weapon systems: Missile warheads Aerial bombs Dispenser / drone aircraft Helicopter spray Source:Hilleman, 2002 Viruses Enterovirus 70 Rotavirus Camelpox Possible others Plague Salmonella Smallpox Brucella Mycotoxins Other biological warfare programs South Africa: Initiated in 1980 Limited covert program, which studied: Bacillus anthracis Vibrio cholerae Clostridium species Terminated in 1993 Other states: North Korea, Iran, Syria, Sudan, and Libya Source: Roffey et. al., 2002 Biological Weapons Convention (1972) This treaty prohibited the development, production, and stockpiling of biological and toxin weapons. Also, the treaty mandated the destruction of bioweapons. The treaty failed to provide criteria to separate offensive from defensive bioweapon research and lacked provisions for on-site inspection and verification. After the BWC… Many countries halted bioweapons production, while others maintained programs. The decline of state-sponsored biological weapon programs introduced the advent of bioterrorism. Biological agent incidents after BWC R.I.S.E. (1972) Objective: Target: Typhoid fever Diptheria Dysentery Meningitis Delivery: Originally, the world population 5 states around Chicago Agents: Kill off most of humanity to prevent destruction of nature, then restart human race. Aerosol via aircraft and contamination of water Outcome: Aborted when cultures were discovered Source: Tucker, 1999 Biological agent incidents after BWC con’t Rajneeshee Cult (1984) Objective: Target: Salmonella typhimurium Delivery: Residents in town of The Dalles and Wasco County Agent: Incapacitate voters at local election in Oregon Contamination of salad bars in local restaurants Outcome: Plot revealed when the cult collapsed after 751 people were poisoned (no fatalities) Biological agent incidents after BWC con’t Minnesota Patriots Council (1991): Objective: Targets: Ricin toxin Delivery: IRS, U.S. deputy marshal, and local law enforcement Agent: Harm federal government Skin contact and dry aerosol Outcome: Group was penetrated by FBI Biological agent incidents after BWC con’t Larry Wayne Harris (1998): Objective: Target: Obtained plague and anthrax Delivery: Threatened U.S. officials Agents: To alert Americans to the Iraqi bioweapons threat Crop-duster Outcome: Arrested when openly talked about bioterrorism Biological agent incidents after BWC con’t Other incidents: London (1978): Sverdlovsk (1979): Georgi Markov, a Bulgarian exile, was assassinated with ricin supplied by the Soviet Union. Anthrax spores accidentally released from a weapons site in former USSR killing many people and animals. United States (2001): Anthrax mailed to politicians, news correspondents, and others. Global concerns of bioweapons There are many factors related to groups becoming potentially armed with bioweapons. Some countries may be ill-prepared to react to the release of a biological agent. The use of biological weapons has global ramifications. Risk analysis Factors Increased political and/or military motivation: Many countries have bioweapons capability or are in the process of weaponizing biological agents. Bioweapons can be used as a deterrent to conventional warfare or as a ‘perceived threat’. Adversaries are ‘on their own’ and do not look to the ‘superpowers’ for help. Biowarfare is largely unprecedented. Changes in traditional terrorism tactics. Source: Fidler, 1999 Risk analysis con’t Lowering of technological barriers Bioweapons are ‘affordable’ in comparison to chemical or nuclear facilities. Biological weapon programs can be masked by research programs. Much of the knowledge of bioweapons have been well researched. Former bioweapons scientists are marketing their expertise to other countries (i.e. Soviet Union). Well-financed cults, terrorist groups, or ‘rogue’ states are seeking biological weapons. Risk analysis con’t Military and civilian vulnerability: Is the United States or other potential targets ready for a biological weapons attack? Lack of training, funding, antibiotics, etc. all contribute to the vulnerability of the country. Disparities Preparedness: Local health departments, hospitals, and medical personnel need to be trained. Coordination between local, state, and federal agencies. Early detection systems. Research on infectious disease. Intelligence and monitoring of potential threats. Vaccines: Must be used in advance of an exposure. Usually given in multiple doses. Must be available or have the ability to be developed. Disparities con’t Anti-microbials: Is there an adequate supply of antibiotics? Some bacteria are becoming resistant to antibiotics. Genetically manipulated bacteria and viruses can be difficult to treat. Global impacts The cost to decontaminate infectious areas International trade will slow down Overwhelmed medical facilities Quarantines Damaged diplomatic relations and retaliation Lingering pathogens Livestock and food supplies harmed Wildlife populations adversely affected WHO (1970) Anthrax >20 km downwind reach 95,000 people killed 125,000 people incapacitated Tularemia >20 km downwind reach 30,000 people killed 125,000 people incapacitated Source: Hilleman, 2002 WHO (1970) Typhus 5 km downwind reach 19,000 people killed 85,000 people incapacitated Tickborne encephalitis 1 km downwind reach 9,500 people killed 35,000 people incapacitated Conclusion Historically, biological weapons have been used against civilians and the military. Many countries began developing intense bioweapons programs in the early half of the 1900’s. The collapse of the Soviet Union left many scientists without work and seeking employment from ‘rogue’ states. Some countries have declared bioweapon capability and others have maintained secret programs. Conclusion con’t Public health systems and medical facilities need to be prepared to handle a bioweapons attack. Intelligence needs to improve to pinpoint threats. Discussion What is an effective delivery system for biological agents? Food Water Aerosol Explosive Other References Bioterrorism Preparedness Program. “History of Biological Warfare and Current Threat”. (1999). 16 November 2003 http://www.healthri.org/environment/biot/history.htm Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). “Emergency Preparedness & Response”. (2003) 16 November 2002 http://www.bt.cdc.gov/ Fidler, David P. “Facing the Global Challenges Posed by Biological Weapons”. Microbes and Infection 1 (1999): 1059-1066. Hilleman, Maurice R. “Overview: Cause and Prevention in Biowarfare and Bioterrorism”. Vaccine 20 (2002): 3055-3067. Roffey, R. et. al. “Biological Warfare in a Historical Perspective”. Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Disease 8 (2002): 450-454. Tucker, Jonathan B. “Historical Trends Related to Bioterrorism: An Empirical Analysis”. Emerging Infectious Diseases 5 (1999): 498504