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Bioweapons
William R. Barnett
PUBH 521
International Public Health
Bioweapons

Why discuss bioweapons?



Bioweapons have historically been used in times
of war and in terrorist tactics.
In a post-911 world, there has been much
emphasis put on bioterrorism and suspected
biological weapons programs being pursued by
other nations.
Biological weapons are a global concern, which
can threaten society, the environment, and the
political or economic stability of many nations.
Introduction

What are bioweapons?


Disease-producing
microorganisms or
biologically derived toxins as
weapons.
Bioweapons are used to kill,
injure, or damage:



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Humans
Animals
Plants
Equipment
Introduction con’t
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Common terms:

Biowarfare


Bioterrorism


Bioweapons used against civilians to disrupt.
State-sponsored
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
Bioweapons used against the military to destroy.
‘Rogue’ states
Sub-state sponsored
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Terrorist groups
Potential biological agents

Category A:

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Anthrax
Smallpox
Plague
Tularemia
Botulinum
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Paralysis of breathing muscles
Viral hemorrhagic fevers
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

Source:CDC
Lassa fever
Rift valley fever
Ebola hemorrhagic fever
Marburg hemorrhagic fever
Potential biological agents con’t
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Anthrax:


Bacillus anthracis
3 forms:

Cutaneous

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Inhalation
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Ulceration on the skin
Flu-like symptoms
Chest discomfort
Shortness of breath
Gastrointestinal



Nausea
Loss of appetite
Bloody diarrhea
Potential biological agents con’t
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Smallpox:

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Variola virus
Symptoms:
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Fever
Malaise
Head and body aches
Rash
Pustules
Scabs
Last US case in 1949
Last worldwide case in
1977
Potential biological agents con’t
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Plague:
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Yersinia pestis
3 forms:

Pneumonic
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Bubonic
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Fever
Weakness
Chest pain
Fever
Swollen and tender lymph
glands
Septicemic
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
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Fever
Chills
Abdominal pain
Bleeding into skin and
organs
Potential biological agents con’t
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Tularemia:
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
Francisella tularensis
Symptoms:
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Sudden fever
Chills
Headaches
Diarrhea
Muscle and joint pain
Chest pain
Ulcers in skin or mouth
Potential biological agents con’t
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Category B:

Q fever (Coxiella burnetii)
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Brucellosis (Brucella suis)
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Pneumonia and pulmonary abcesses
Ricin toxin
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Severe infections of CNS or heart lining
Glanders (Burkholderia mallei)
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Pneumonia
Respiratory distress leading to pulmonary edema
Clostridium perfringens toxin
Staphylococcal enterotoxin B
Potential biological agents con’t
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Category C:
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Nipah virus
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Hantavirus
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Respiratory illness, encephalitis, and coma
Pulmonary edema
Tick-borne encephalitis
Yellow fever
Multidrug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB)
Historical biowarfare

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
Throughout history, biological agents have
been used against combatants in military
engagements.
Scientific advances in microbiology during the
late 19th century led to the development of
destructive biological weapons.
Two world wars gave countries a chance to
enhance bioweapons capabilities and
eventually use these weapons.
Early biowarfare

Contamination of food and water:
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Projecting plague-ridden bodies:
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6th century B.C. – Assyrians poisoned wells with rye ergot.
1346 – Plague-ridden bodies were catapulted over the
walls in the city of Kaffra.
Distribution of infected materials:
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
15th century – Smallpox infected blankets given to South
American natives by Pizarro.
1754 to 1767 - Blankets contaminated with smallpox were
distributed to Native Americans by the British.
Source: Bioterrorism Preparedness Program (2002)
World War I
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Technology from Pasteur and Koch:
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Louis Pasteur
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Germ theory of disease
Robert Koch
Koch’s postulates
Infected livestock and animal supplies:
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Germany developed bioweapons to infect livestock and
animal feed:
Anthrax
 Glanders
No bioweapon attacks on humans
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
Source: Hilleman, 2002
World War I con’t
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Cavalry during WWI
Geneva Protocol (1925)

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An international treaty, which prohibited the use of
chemical and biological weapons in warfare.
No prohibition for the development and stockpiling
of chemical and biological weapons.
Many biological weapons programs were developed
after the treaty:
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United States (1943)
USSR (1926)
United Kingdom (1936)
Japan (1932)
Many other nations
World War II
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Major participants
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Japan:
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USSR:
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Prior to WWII, Japan used plague, cholera, anthrax and
other pathogens during the invasion of China.
An estimated 1,000 to 222,000 deaths from attacks and
5,000 to 10,000 deaths from experimental work.
Focused on typhus and plague.
United States:
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Developed chemical herbicides and delivery systems for
anthrax.
World War II con’t
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Minor participants
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UK and Canada:
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Researched bioweapons against animals and crops.
Anthrax use against cattle (“cattle-cakes”).
No participation
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Germany:
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The offensive use of biological weapons was forbidden.
Germany had a mortal fear of the US bioweapons
capability.
World War II con’t
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Japanese rounding up
POWs in China.
Biological weapons programs
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After WWII, many countries began to
increase bioweapon production.
A ‘cold war’ era contributed to further
advancements in biological warfare.
There has been much speculation about the
bioweapon capability of other nations.
US Biological Warfare Program
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Began in 1943 at Fort Detrick, Maryland.
In 1945, the US developed as small-particle-size
aerosol system to deliver pathogens.
The US dropped war crimes against the Japanese in
return for data on experiments against human
subjects.
In 1950, wheat rust was made available to be used
against the Soviet Union prior to the Korean War.
The Pine Bluff Arsenal in Arkansas began producing
Brucella suis in 1954.
The bioweapons program continued into the late
1960’s.
Source: Roffey et. al., 2002
US Biological Warfare Program con’t
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Weaponized:
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Bacteria
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Weapon systems:
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Virus
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Anthrax
Tularemia
Brucellosis
Q fever
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Venezuelan equine
encephalitis
Yellow fever
Various toxins and
antiplant pathogens
Source: Hilleman, 2002
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Sergeant missile
warhead
Spray dispenser for
drones
Wet and dry spray tanks
for jet planes
Cluster bombs
Bomblet dispenser for
long range bombers
US Biological Weapons Program con’t
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Sergeant Missile
System
US Biological Warfare Program con’t
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Nixon’s order (1969):
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Ordered discontinuance of bioweapons activity and the
destruction of all bioweapons stockpiles.
Why?
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US officials felt that biological weapons did not have an
military advantage against the enemy.
Results
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The Soviet bioweapons program increased as a result of the
US decision to stop offensive research.
The FBI organized a disinformation campaign to suggest the
US had a secret bioweapons program.
The United States still maintains a defensive research facility
at Fort Detrick, MD.
Source: Roffey et. al., 2002
US Biological Weapons Program con’t
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USAMRIID at Fort
Detrick, MD
USSR Biological Warfare Program
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The program was initiated in 1926.
Research was carried out on gas gangrene, tetanus,
botulism, and plague.
Methods were developed to deliver these biological
agents through aircraft and artillery shells.
Captured Japanese and German researchers and
equipment were used to enhance the program.
The bioweapons program continued well into the
early 1990’s.
USSR Biological Warfare Program con’t
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Reported to be researched, developed, and some
weaponized by 1993:
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Bacteria:
 Anthrax
 Tularemia
 Brucellosis
 Plague
 Glanders
Virus:
 Smallpox
 Various pathogens that cause encephalitis and
hemorrhagic fevers
Research on genetically modified agents
Source:Hilleman, 2002
Other biological warfare programs
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Iraq:
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Began in 1974
Agents studied were:
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Clostridium botulinum
Bacillus anthracis
Influenza virus
Restarted in 1979
Expanded in 1986 to include toxins:
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Aflatoxin
Trichothecene mycotoxins
Ricin
Source:Roffey et. al., 2002
Other biological weapons program con’t
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UN inspectors in Iraq
Other biological warfare programs con’t
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Weaponized:
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Bacteria
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Researched:
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Anthrax
Clostridium perfringens
Antiplant agents
Toxins
Weapon systems:
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Missile warheads
Aerial bombs
Dispenser / drone aircraft
Helicopter spray
Source:Hilleman, 2002
Viruses
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Enterovirus 70
Rotavirus
Camelpox
Possible others
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Plague
Salmonella
Smallpox
Brucella
Mycotoxins
Other biological warfare programs
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South Africa:
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Initiated in 1980
Limited covert program, which studied:
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Bacillus anthracis
Vibrio cholerae
Clostridium species
Terminated in 1993
Other states:
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North Korea, Iran, Syria, Sudan, and Libya
Source: Roffey et. al., 2002
Biological Weapons Convention (1972)
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This treaty prohibited the development,
production, and stockpiling of biological and
toxin weapons.
Also, the treaty mandated the destruction of
bioweapons.
The treaty failed to provide criteria to
separate offensive from defensive bioweapon
research and lacked provisions for on-site
inspection and verification.
After the BWC…
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Many countries halted bioweapons
production, while others maintained
programs.
The decline of state-sponsored biological
weapon programs introduced the advent of
bioterrorism.
Biological agent incidents after BWC
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R.I.S.E. (1972)
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Objective:
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Target:
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Typhoid fever
Diptheria
Dysentery
Meningitis
Delivery:
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Originally, the world population
5 states around Chicago
Agents:
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Kill off most of humanity to prevent destruction of nature, then restart human race.
Aerosol via aircraft and contamination of water
Outcome:
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Aborted when cultures were discovered
Source: Tucker, 1999
Biological agent incidents after BWC con’t
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Rajneeshee Cult (1984)
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Objective:
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Target:
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Salmonella typhimurium
Delivery:
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Residents in town of The Dalles and Wasco County
Agent:
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Incapacitate voters at local election in Oregon
Contamination of salad bars in local restaurants
Outcome:
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Plot revealed when the cult collapsed after 751 people were
poisoned (no fatalities)
Biological agent incidents after BWC con’t
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Minnesota Patriots Council (1991):
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Objective:
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Targets:
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Ricin toxin
Delivery:
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IRS, U.S. deputy marshal, and local law enforcement
Agent:
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Harm federal government
Skin contact and dry aerosol
Outcome:
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Group was penetrated by FBI
Biological agent incidents after BWC con’t
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Larry Wayne Harris (1998):
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Objective:
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Target:
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Obtained plague and anthrax
Delivery:
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Threatened U.S. officials
Agents:
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To alert Americans to the Iraqi bioweapons threat
Crop-duster
Outcome:
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Arrested when openly talked about bioterrorism
Biological agent incidents after BWC con’t
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Other incidents:
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London (1978):
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Sverdlovsk (1979):
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Georgi Markov, a Bulgarian exile, was assassinated with
ricin supplied by the Soviet Union.
Anthrax spores accidentally released from a weapons
site in former USSR killing many people and animals.
United States (2001):
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Anthrax mailed to politicians, news correspondents, and
others.
Global concerns of bioweapons
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There are many factors related to groups
becoming potentially armed with bioweapons.
Some countries may be ill-prepared to react
to the release of a biological agent.
The use of biological weapons has global
ramifications.
Risk analysis
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Factors
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Increased political and/or military motivation:
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Many countries have bioweapons capability or are in the
process of weaponizing biological agents.
Bioweapons can be used as a deterrent to conventional
warfare or as a ‘perceived threat’.
Adversaries are ‘on their own’ and do not look to the
‘superpowers’ for help.
Biowarfare is largely unprecedented.
Changes in traditional terrorism tactics.
Source: Fidler, 1999
Risk analysis con’t
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Lowering of technological barriers
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Bioweapons are ‘affordable’ in comparison to chemical
or nuclear facilities.
Biological weapon programs can be masked by
research programs.
Much of the knowledge of bioweapons have been well
researched.
Former bioweapons scientists are marketing their
expertise to other countries (i.e. Soviet Union).
Well-financed cults, terrorist groups, or ‘rogue’ states are
seeking biological weapons.
Risk analysis con’t
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Military and civilian vulnerability:
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Is the United States or other potential targets ready for a
biological weapons attack?
Lack of training, funding, antibiotics, etc. all contribute to
the vulnerability of the country.
Disparities
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Preparedness:
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Local health departments, hospitals, and medical personnel
need to be trained.
Coordination between local, state, and federal agencies.
Early detection systems.
Research on infectious disease.
Intelligence and monitoring of potential threats.
Vaccines:
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Must be used in advance of an exposure.
Usually given in multiple doses.
Must be available or have the ability to be developed.
Disparities con’t
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Anti-microbials:
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Is there an adequate supply of antibiotics?
Some bacteria are becoming resistant to
antibiotics.
Genetically manipulated bacteria and viruses can
be difficult to treat.
Global impacts
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The cost to decontaminate infectious areas
International trade will slow down
Overwhelmed medical facilities
Quarantines
Damaged diplomatic relations and retaliation
Lingering pathogens
Livestock and food supplies harmed
Wildlife populations adversely affected
WHO (1970)
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Anthrax
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>20 km downwind reach
95,000 people killed
125,000 people incapacitated
Tularemia
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>20 km downwind reach
30,000 people killed
125,000 people incapacitated
Source: Hilleman, 2002
WHO (1970)
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Typhus
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5 km downwind reach
19,000 people killed
85,000 people incapacitated
Tickborne encephalitis
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
1 km downwind reach
9,500 people killed
35,000 people incapacitated
Conclusion



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Historically, biological weapons have been used
against civilians and the military.
Many countries began developing intense
bioweapons programs in the early half of the 1900’s.
The collapse of the Soviet Union left many scientists
without work and seeking employment from ‘rogue’
states.
Some countries have declared bioweapon capability
and others have maintained secret programs.
Conclusion con’t


Public health systems and medical facilities
need to be prepared to handle a bioweapons
attack.
Intelligence needs to improve to pinpoint
threats.
Discussion

What is an effective delivery system for
biological agents?

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Food
Water
Aerosol
Explosive
Other
References
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Bioterrorism Preparedness Program. “History of Biological Warfare
and Current Threat”. (1999). 16 November 2003
http://www.healthri.org/environment/biot/history.htm
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). “Emergency
Preparedness & Response”. (2003) 16 November 2002
http://www.bt.cdc.gov/
Fidler, David P. “Facing the Global Challenges Posed by Biological
Weapons”. Microbes and Infection 1 (1999): 1059-1066.
Hilleman, Maurice R. “Overview: Cause and Prevention in
Biowarfare and Bioterrorism”. Vaccine 20 (2002): 3055-3067.
Roffey, R. et. al. “Biological Warfare in a Historical Perspective”.
Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Disease 8 (2002): 450-454.
Tucker, Jonathan B. “Historical Trends Related to Bioterrorism: An
Empirical Analysis”. Emerging Infectious Diseases 5 (1999): 498504