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Morphology: Lexical category Linguistics 200 Spring 2006 Lexical category = ‘part of speech’, ‘grammatical category’ What are the lexical categories? of a given language? across languages? Why this is important in linguistics Words of different lexical categories have different properties Can combine with certain affixes (e.g.) to form words Can combine with certain words (e.g.) to form sentences (Imagine a dictionary which didn’t include lexical category) Determining lexical category Morphological tests: what kinds of bound morphemes can be added to morphemes in category X? Syntactic tests: what kinds of words can be juxtaposed? Typical lg description nouns: X, Y, Z characteristics (in lg. P) verbs: A, B, C characteristics (in lg. Q) adjectives: … … Verbs Meanings: denote actions, events, states But meaning is not always a reliable guide ‘hungry’ is an adjective in English ?AnAwi ‘be hungry’ is a verb in Sahaptin Some Sahaptin verbs snwi ‘talk’ pAju ‘be sick, hurt’ kAAm ‘miss’ pnú ‘sleep’ Characteristics of Sahaptin verbs Can be affixed with tense/aspect suffixes –šA imperfective (unless irregular) -(n)XA habitual -tA future Can be affixed with person/number affixes ?i- 3sg pA- 3pl -k 2sg imperative, etc. Nouns Typically refer to objects, classes of objects, concepts Some Sahaptin nouns Morphological test ?A?A ‘crow’ ?wnš ‘man’ tiinAwit ‘culture, tradition’ cannot be affixed with tense/aspect suffixes Syntactic test (‘frame’) for nouns ___ verb or verb ___ ?ipnúšA ‘he’s sleeping’ ?ipnúšA ?wnš or ?wnš ?ipnúšA ‘the man is sleeping’ A noun-forming affix Some affixes change lexical category (‘categorychanging’) E.g. –/t’AwAAs/ instrument: ]V __ ]N (“attaches to verbs, forms nouns”) [[q’íwi]V t’AwAAs]N N(oun) V(erb) | q’íwi ‘play’ t’AwAAs Phonology applies to word after morphemes joined together: [q’iwit’AwAAs] ‘toy’ A verb forming affix • -i ‘do with N’: ]N ___ ]V • tAAtpAs ‘shirt, dress’ (noun) • tAAtpAsi ‘wear, put on shirt, dress’ (verb) • tAAtpAsik ‘put on your shirt’ (-k 2sg imperative) ?Ajn ‘iron’ (noun) ?Ajni ‘iron, press’ (verb) ?Ajnik ‘iron it’ More morphological properties of nouns Cannot occur with verb affixes Can occur with case suffixes (next week) Nouns have dual and plural forms, but 2 types of nouns Animate, independently mobile -in dual, -ma plural Inanimate or immobile dual/plural formed via reduplication Animate nouns Animate and independently mobile nouns Form plurals with -mA ?A?A ‘crow, ?A?AmA ‘crows’ ?Ap’úus ‘cat’, ?Ap’úusmA ‘cats’ ?AjAt ‘woman’, ?AjAtmA ‘women’ č’Ač’A ‘ghost’, č’Ač’AmA ‘ghosts’ Inanimate nouns Inanimate or not independently mobile Form plural via reduplication (copy all or part of morpheme) Inanimate pšwA ‘rock’, pšwApšwA ‘rocks’ ?tt ‘tooth’, ?tt?tt ‘teeth’ wAlA ‘creek’, wAlAwAlA ‘creeks’ (Walla Walla) Immobile animate (e.g. plants) lAtít ‘flower’, lAtítlAtit ‘flowers’ Adjectives Have dual and plural forms, like nouns Syntactic tests: ___ noun čilwít ‘bad’ tkwAtAt ‘food’ *___ verb or *verb ___ , except wA- ‘be’ ?iwA ‘it is, he is, she is’ (note irregular imperfective form without –šA) pAwA ‘they are’ Verbs vs. adjectives ?AtAw ‘valuable, important’ (adjective) ?AtAw iwA ‘it’s valuable’ (?AtAwi ‘love, like, value’ (verb) *?i?AtAwšA ?i?AtAwiša ‘he likes…’) ?AnAwi ‘be hungry’ (verb) ?i?AnAwišA ‘he’s hungry’ *?AnAwi iwA Summary Sahaptin lexical categories include noun, verb, adjective Used in different syntactic and morphological contexts Subcategories of lexical categories may also need to be distinguished; may have different morphological or syntactic characteristics Change in lexical category can be accomplished with the addition of certain affixes