Download Basic Language Skills

Dr. Mohanad Abu Sabha
Basic Language Skills
Course Number: Eng. 111
Course Title:
Course Level: 1
Credit Hours:
3
Hours of Instruction per Week: 3
Course schedule
week
Topics
1
The Sentence: Subject and verbs
2
Substantive: Nouns and Pronouns
3
Verbs: Prosperities of verb: Tense, Mood, Voice
Person and Number
4
Tenses: Simple Forms
5
Tenses: Perfect Forms
6
Tenses: Progressive Forms
7
Tenses: Perfect Progressive Forms
8
Passive- Active Voice, Active conjugation
9
Basic Sentence Pattern: Subject- Verb
10
Subject-Verb-Object
11
Subject-Linking Verb- Complement
12
Modifiers: Substantive modifier
13
Modifiers: Verb Modifier
14
Modifiers of sentence: Adverbs: Comp. & Superlative
15
Sentence Punctuation Patterns
The Sentence: Subject and verbs
Words and Sentences
Language
Language: is primarily a means of communicating
thoughts from one person to another.
Word: a written or spoken symbol which stands for a
concept or idea.
Sentence: is a combination of words which conveys at
least one complete thought consisting of combination of
concepts.
One usually simply patterns his sentences after those he
has read or heard .Something more than imitation is
necessary. That understands of sentence structure.
The Sentence
Subjects and Verbs
Subject: is a word (or group of words) which names or indicates a
person or thing about which something is said.
e.g.) the boy consulted the teacher.
The pencil was good.
Hunting rabbits is fun.
How to find the subject of the verb
Form question by who or what before the verb.
The answer to the question is the subject of the verb
Children play.
Who play?
Children.
The thunder frightens the dog .
What frightens ?
Thunder ‫الرعد‬
The man was promoted , The book seems long .
*** Sometimes the subject is understood rather than expressed .
e.g ) Stop .
Shut the door .
Substantive: Nouns and Pronouns
Substantive
.
Substantive
is : a noun
A pronoun , or
A word or word–group functioning a noun
1) NOUNS
A noun is the name of a person or thing .
e.g ) teacher , Asia , desk , reading , happiness .
Nouns classification :
1.Common Noun
2.Collective Noun
3.Material Noun
4.Abstract Noun
5.Proper Noun
common nouns .
child , city , cow , walking , loyalty .
proper nouns .
George Washington , the UAE …
2 ) PRONOUNS
A pronoun is a word which stands for a noun .
e.g ) I , YOU , HE , IT , THAT , WHO , WHICH .
The classification of Pronouns:
1. Personal Pronoun:
2. Demonstrative Pronoun:
3. Indefinite Pronoun
4. Reflexive Pronoun
5. Reciprocal Pronoun
6. Intensive Pronoun
7. Interrogative Pronoun
8. Indefinite relative Pronoun
9. Relative Pronoun
The Classification of Nouns and Pronouns:
Person :
first person : the person speaking ( I , we
)
second person : the person or thing spoken
to ( you )
third person : the person or thing spoken of
( he , she , it , they )
Number :
A) Singular and Plural Numbers
1) singular
e.g) girl , ceiling ,
defeat .
2) plural
e.g ) children ,
B) Collective Nouns :
A noun which names a group is called a
collective noun .
e.g ) class , audience , crowd , group , team .
* collective nouns can be singular or plural .
The team is winning the game ( singular ) .
The team are wearing sweaters ( plural ) .
If we add ( s) to the collective noun it is no more
collective because it refers to more than one
group . e.g) classes , teams …
3-GENDER
A)Masculine : man , he , bull
(person or animal male )
B)Feminine : woman , she , cow .
( person or animal female )
C)Neuter
: road , house , it (' it'
doesn't have sex ) ( thing )
D)Common : child , person , dog ,
someone . (person or animal without
showing sex of common gender )
Three Types of Nouns and Pronouns
1.personal pronoun .
singular
Plural
1st person
I
We
2nd person
You
You
3rd person
He , she , it
They
1.Demonstrative pronoun : ( it is always in the third person )
It points one or more persons or things .
singular
Plural
This
these
That
Those
e.g ) 1- That is the library .
2- These are expensive .
Indefinite pronoun : ( third person )
It refers to one or more persons or things
but doesn't definitely point which one or
ones are meant .
A)singular in pronoun : each , none ,
some , all , one ( person ) , either ,
neither , anyone , everyone , someone ,
anyone , everyone , somebody , nobody ,
anybody , everybody , something ,
nothing .
B)plural in pronoun : none , some , all,
both , few , several , many.
e.g) one must be brave .
Everybody is present .
Several have finished the exam
*When measuring quantity ( none ,
some , all ) are singular .
*When measuring number (none ,
some , all ) are plural .
e.g ) 1- None ( some , all ) of the
soup was left . ( Q )
2- None (some, all) of the
marbles were under the bed . ( N)
Pronoun Case
Pronoun Case is really a very simple
matter. There are three cases.
1.Subjective case: pronouns used as
subject.
2.2. Objective case: pronouns used as
objects of verbs or prepositions.
3.3. Possessive case: pronouns which
express ownership.
Pronouns as
OBJECTS
Pronouns as
SUBJECTS
Pronouns that show
POSSESSION
I
me
my (mine)
you
you
your (yours)
he, she, it
him, her, it
his, her (hers), it (its)
we
us
our (ours)
they
them
their (theirs)
who
whom
whose
The pronouns THIS, THAT, THESE,
THOSE, and WHICH do not change
form.
Some problems of case:
1.In compound structures, where there are
two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun,
drop the other noun for a moment. Then
you can see which case you want.
NOT: Bob and me travel a good deal.
(Would you say, "me travel"?)
NOT: He gave the flowers to Jane and I.
(Would you say, "he gave the flowers to I"?)
NOT: Us men like the coach.
(Would you say, "us like the coach"?)
2. In comparisons. Comparisons usually
follow than or as:
He is taller than I (am tall).
This helps you as much as (it helps) me.
She is as noisy as I (am).
Comparisons are really shorthand sentences
which usually omit words, such as those in
the parentheses in the sentences above. If
you complete the comparison in your head,
you can choose the correct case for the
pronoun.
NOT: He is taller than me. (Would you say,
"than me am tall"?).
3. In formal and semiformal writing:
Use the subjective form after a form of the
verb to be.
FORMAL: It is I.
INFORMAL: It is me.
Use whom in the objective case.
FORMAL: To whom am I talking?
INFORMAL: Who am I talking to?
Verbs: Prosperities of verb: Tense, Mood, Voice
Person and Number
Verb
Verb: is a word (or group of words) which says something
addition to the subject, indicating action, possession, or
state of
being.
e.g ) The plane flew . (Simple present and simple past)
Ali has a car.
(Has, have, and had)
The man is tall. (Is, are, am, was, were ...)
*** A group of words which performs the verb function is
called verb phrase.
She is hitting the ball.
She will hit the ball.
( have , has , is , are , will , would , may , be .. ….. ) Auxiliary
or helping verbs
A. Prosperities of Verbs
1.Mood
2.Tense
3.Voice
4.Person and Number
1.Mood
There are 3 non-finite (i.e. not conjugated) moods and 5 finite
moods (i.e. conjugated) in English, which makes a total of 8
moods:
Non-finite moods:
•Infinitive (to be)
•Participle (being)
•Gerund (being)
Finite moods:
•Indicative mood (I am)
•Conditional mood (I would be)
•Potential mood (I may be)
•Subjunctive mood (I be)
•Imperative mood (be!)
In this chapter we are going to discuss only these moods:
1. Indicative mood (I am) example: The child lost the toy.
2. Subjunctive mood (I be) example: If I were you, I would
go.
3. Imperative mood (be!) example: Stop! ; Shut the door.
2.Tense
There are 12 tenses:
•Simple present (I am)
•Present progressive or Present continuous (I am being)
•Present perfect (I have been)
•Present perfect progressive or present perfect continuous (I have been
being)
•Simple past (I was)
•Past progressive or Past continuous (I was being)
•Past perfect or pluperfect (I had been)
•Past perfect progressive, pluperfect progressive, past perfect continuous or
pluperfect continuous (I had been being)
•Simple future (I shall be)
•Future progressive or Future continuous (I shall be being)
•Future perfect (I shall have been)
•Future perfect progressive or Future perfect continuous (I shall have been
being)
•All non-auxiliaries exhibit two more tenses:
•Intensive present (I do play)
•Intensive past (I did play)
3.Voice
There are 2 voices:
•Active voice (I play)
•Passive voice (I am played)
4. Number and person
There are 2 grammatical numbers and 3
grammatical persons:
•First person singular: I
•Second person singular: you or thou
•Third person singular: he, she, it or a singular
noun
•First person plural: we
•Second person plural: you
•Third person plural: they or a plural noun
Classification of Verbs
1.Transitive
2.Intransitive
3.Linking
Tenses: Simple Forms
Tenses
Tenses
Structure
‫مفرد‬
‫جمع‬
emphatic
Simple present
S+v1+obj
does
Do
s+do/does+v1+obj
Simple past
S+v2+obj
did
Simple future
S+will+v1+obj
will
Present perfect
S+ has /have + p.p + obj
has
Past perfect
S+ had+p.p+obj
Had
Future perfect
S+will have+p.p+obj
Will have
Present progressive
S+is/are/am+(v+ing)+obj
Is
are
Past
S+was/were+(v+ing)+obj
was
Wer
e
Future progressive
S+will be+(v+ing ) +obj
Will be
Present perfect
progressive
S+has/have+been+(v+ing)
has
Past perfect progressive
S+ had been+(v+ing)
had
future perfect progressive
S+will have been+( v+ing)
will have
been
progressive
s+did+v1+obj
Hav
e
hav
e
am –
i
Note : he , she , it
= ‫مفرد‬
We , they , you = ‫جمع‬
Note :
Do
Was
Have
Am
– I
– I
– I
- I
Note : emphatic ‫يأتي مع المضارع البسيط و الماضي البسيط فقط‬
S+ do/does+v1+obj ‫المضارع البسيط‬
e.g) 1- I do come early . 2she does speak English
S+Did+v1+obj ‫الماضي البسيط‬
e.g ) 1- they did study hard .
Note :
Do /does / did / will + v1
Have /has / had
+ p.p
Is/ are / am / was / were + ( v+ ing )
Is , are , am + v + ing ‫مضارع مستمر‬
Was , were + v + ing ‫ماضي مستمر‬
Do , does + v1
‫مضارع بسيط‬
Did + v1
‫ماضي بسيط‬
Do
: they , we , you , I
Does : he , she , it
A regular English verb has only one principal part, the infinitive
or dictionary form (which is identical to the simple present
tense for all persons and numbers except the third person
singular). All other forms of a regular verb can be derived
straightforwardly from the infinitive, for a total of four forms (e.g.
exist, exists, existed, existing)
English irregular verbs (except to be) have at most three
principal parts:
1
2
3
Part
infinitive
Past
past participle
Example:
write
wrote
written
Strong verbs like write have all three distinct parts, for a total of
five forms (e. g. write, writes, wrote, written, writing). The more
irregular weak verbs also require up to three forms to be learned.
The highly irregular copular verb to be has eight forms: be, am, is,
are, being, was, were, been, of which only one is derivable from a
principal part (being is derived from be). On the history of this
verb, see Indo-European copula.
Verbs had more forms when the pronoun thou was still in regular
use and there was a number distinction in the second person. To
be, for instance, had art, wast and wert.
Most of the strong verbs that survive in modern English are
considered irregular. Irregular verbs in English come from several
historical sources; some are technically strong verbs (i. e. their
forms display specific vowel changes of the type known as ablaut
in linguistics); others have had various phonetic changes or
contractions added to them over the history of English.
Infinitive and basic form
Formation
The infinitive in English is the naked root form of the word. When it is
being used as a verbal noun, the particle to is usually prefixed to it.
When the infinitive stands as the predicate of an auxiliary verb, to
may be omitted, depending on the requirements of the idiom.
Uses
The infinitive, in English, is one of two verbal nouns: To write is to
learn.
•The infinitive, either marked with to or unmarked, is used as the
complement of many auxiliary verbs: I will write a novel about
talking beavers; I am really going to write it.
•The basic form also forms the English imperative mood: Write
these words!
•The basic form makes the English subjunctive mood: If you write it,
they will read.
Third person singular
Formation
The third person singular in regular verbs in English is
distinguished by the suffix -s. In English spelling, this -s
is added to the stem of the infinitive form: run → runs.
If the base ends in a sibilant sound like /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/
(see IPA) that is not followed by a silent E, the suffix is
written -es: buzz → buzzes; catch → catches.
If the base ends in a consonant plus y, the y changes to
an i and -es is affixed to the end: cry → cries.
Verbs ending in o typically add -es: veto → vetoes.
The third person singular present indicative in English is
notable cross-linguistically for being a morphologically
marked form for a semantically unmarked one. That is to
say the the third person singular is usually taken to be
the most basic form in a given verbal category and as
such, according to markedness theory, should have the
simplest of forms in its paradigm. This is clearly not the
case with English where the other persons exhibit the
bare root and nothing more.
In Early Modern English, some dialects distinguished the
third person singular with the suffix -th; after consonants
this was written -eth, and some consonants were doubled
when this was added: run → runneth.
Use
The third person singular is used exclusively in the third
person form of the English simple "present tense", which
often has other uses besides the simple present: He
writes airport novels about anthropomorphic rodents.
Exception
English preserves a number of past -present verbs, such
as can and may. These verbs lack a separate form for the
third person singular: she can, she may. All surviving
preterits-present verbs in modern English are auxiliary
verbs. The verb will, although historically not a preteritspresent verb, has come to be inflected like one when
used as an auxiliary; it adds -s in the third person
singular only when it is a full verb: Whatever she wills to
happen will make life annoying for everyone else.
Present participle
Formation
The present participle is made by the suffix -ing: go → going.
If the base ends in silent e, it is dropped before adding the suffix:
believe → believing.
If the e is not silent, it is retained: agree → agreeing.
If the base ends in -ie, change the ie to y and add -ing: lie → lying.
If:
•the base form ends in a single consonant; and
•a single vowel precedes that consonant; and
•the last syllable of the base form is stressed
•then the final consonant is doubled before adding the suffix: set →
setting; occur → occurring.
In British English, as an exception, the final <l> is subject to
doubling even when the last syllable is not stressed: yodel →
yodelling, travel → travelling; in American English, these follow the
rule: yodeling, traveling.
Irregular forms include:
singeing, where the e is (sometimes) not
dropped to avoid confusion with singing;
•ageing, in British English, where the expected
form aging is ambiguous as to whether it has a
hard or soft g;
•words ending in -c, which add k before the -ing,
for example, trafficking, panicking, frolicking, and
bivouacking.
•a number of words that are subject to the
doubling rule even though they do not fall
squarely within its terms, such as diagramming,
kidnapping, programming, and worshipping.
Uses
•The present participle is another English verbal noun: Writing is
learning (see gerund for this sense).
•It is used as an adjective: a writing desk; building beavers.
•It is used to form a past, present or future tense with progressive or
imperfective force: He is writing another long book about beavers.
•It is used with quasi-auxiliaries to form verb phrases: He tried writing
about opossums instead, but his muse deserted him.
Preterite
Formation
In weak verbs, the preterite is formed with the suffix -ed: work →
worked.
If the base ends in e, -d is simply added to it: hone → honed; dye >
dyed.
Where the base ends in a consonant plus y, the y changes to i before the
-ed is added; deny → denied.
Where the base ends in a vowel plus y, the y is retained: alloy →
alloyed.
The rule for doubling the final consonant in regular weak verbs for the
preterite is the same as the rule for doubling in the present participle;
see above.
Many strong verbs and other irregular verbs form the preterite
differently, for which see that article.
Use
The preterite is used for the English simple (non-iterative or progressive)
past tense. He wrote two more chapters about the dam at Kashawigamog
Lake.
Past participle
Formation
In regular weak verbs, the past participle is always the same as the
preterite.
Irregular verbs may have separate preterites and past participles;
Uses
•The past participle is used with the auxiliary have for the English perfect
tenses: They have written about the slap of tails on water, about the scent
of the lodge... (With verbs of motion, an archaic form with be may be found
in older texts: he is come.)
•With be, it forms the passive voice: It is written so well, you can feel what
it's like to gnaw down trees!
•It is used as an adjective: the written word; a broken dam.
•It is used with quasi-auxiliaries to form verb phrases: 500,000 words got
written in record time.
Tenses of the English verb
English verbs, like those in many other western
European languages, have more tenses than
forms; tenses beyond the ones possible with the
five forms listed above are formed with auxiliary
verbs, as are the passive voice forms of these
verbs. Important auxiliary verbs in English
include will, used to form the future tense; shall,
formerly used mainly for the future tense, but
now used mainly for commands and directives;
be, have, and do, which are used to form the
supplementary tenses of the English verb, to add
aspect to the actions they describe, or for
negation.
English verbs display complex forms of negation. While
simple negation was used well into the period of early
Modern English (Touch not the royal person!) in
contemporary English negation almost always requires
that the negative particle be attached to an auxiliary verb
such as do or be. I go not is archaic; I don't go or I am
not going are what the contemporary idiom requires.
English exhibits similar idiomatic complexity with the
interrogative mood, which in Indo-European languages is
not, strictly speaking, a mood. Like many other Western
European languages, English historically allowed
questions to be asked by inverting the position of verb
and subject:
Whither goest thou? Now, in English, questions are often
trickily idiomatic, and require the use of auxiliary verbs,
though occasionally, the interrogative mood is still used in
Modern English
Overview of tenses
In English grammar, tense refers to any conjugated form expressing
time, aspect or mood. The large number of different composite verb
forms means that English has the richest and subtlest system of
tense and aspect of any Germanic language. This can be confusing
for foreign learners; however, the English verb is in fact very
systematic once one understands that in each of the three time
spheres - past, present and future - English has a basic tense which
can then be made either perfect or progressive (continuous) or both.
Progressive
Perfect
Perfect progressive
I will be
writing
I will have
written
I will have been
writing
Present I write
I am writing
I have written
I have been writing
Past
I was writing
I had written
I had been writing
Simple
Future
I will
write
I wrote
Because of the neatness of this system, modern
textbooks on English generally use the terminology in
this table. What was traditionally called the "perfect" is
here called "present perfect" and the "pluperfect"
becomes "past perfect", in order to show the
relationships of the perfect forms to their respective
simple forms. Whereas in other Germanic languages,
or in Old English, the "perfect" is just a past tense, the
English "present perfect" has a present reference; it is
both a past tense and a present tense, describing the
connection between a past event and a present state.
However, historical linguists sometimes prefer
terminology which applies to all Germanic languages
and is more helpful for comparative purposes; when
describing wrote as a historical form, for example, we
would say "preterite" rather than "past simple".
This table, of course, omits a
number of forms which can be
regarded as additional to the basic
system:
•the intensive present I do write
•the intensive past I did write
•the habitual past I used to write
•the "shall future" I shall write
•the "going-to future" I am going to write
•the "future in the past" I was going to write
•the conditional I would write
•the perfect conditional I would have written
•the (increasingly seldom used) subjunctives, if I be,
if I were.
Some systems of English grammar eliminate the
future tense altogether, treating will/would simply
as modal verbs, in the same category as other
modal verbs such as can/could and may/might.
See Grammatical tense for a more technical
discussion of this subject.
A full inventory of verb forms follows.
Present simple
Or simple present.
•Affirmative: I write; He writes
•Negative: He does not (doesn't) write
•Interrogative: Does he write?
•Negative interrogative: Does he not write?
(Doesn't he write?)
Note that the "simple present" in idiomatic
English often identifies habitual or
customary action:
He writes about beavers (understanding that he
does so all the time.)
It is used with stative verbs:
She thinks beavers are remarkable
It can also have a future meaning (though much
less commonly than in many other languages):
She goes to Milwaukee on Tuesday.
Put Tuesday in the plural, and She goes to
Milwaukee on Tuesdays means that she goes to
Milwaukee every Tuesday.
The present simple has an intensive or emphatic form
with "do": He does write. In the negative and
interrogative forms, of course, this is identical to the nonemphatic forms. It is typically used as a response to the
question Does he write, whether that question is
expressed or implied, and says that indeed, he does
write.
The idiomatic use of the negative particles not and -n't in
the interrogative form is also worth noting. In formal
literary English of the sort in which contractions are
avoided, not attaches itself to the main verb: Does he not
write? When the colloquial contraction -n't is used, this
attaches itself to the auxiliary do: Doesn't he write? This
in fact is a contraction of a more archaic word order, still
occasionally found in poetry: *Does not he write?
Past simple
Or preterite.
•Affirmative: He wrote
•Negative: He did not write
•Interrogative: Did he write?
•Negative interrogative: Did he not write?
(Didn't he write?)
The same change of word order in the negative interrogative that
distinguishes the formal and informal register also applies to the
preterite. Note also that the preterite form is also used only in the
affirmative. When the sentence is recast as a negative or
interrogative, he wrote not and wrote he? are archaic and not used
in modern English. They must instead be supplied by periphrastic
forms.
This tense is used for a single event in the past, sometimes for past
habitual action, and in chronological narration. Like the present
simple, it has emphatic forms with "do": he did write.
Although it is sometimes taught that the difference between the
present perfect and the simple past is that the perfect denotes a
completed action whereas the past denotes an incomplete action,
this theory is clearly false. Both forms are normally used for
completed actions. (Indeed the English preterite comes from the
Proto-Indo-European perfect.) And either can be used for
incomplete actions. The real distinction is that the present perfect is
used when the time frame either is the present or includes the
present, whereas the simple past is used when the time frame is in
the absolute past.
The "used to" past tense for habitual actions is probably best
included under the bracket of the past simple. Compare:
When I was young I played football every Saturday.
When I was young I used to play football every Saturday.
The difference is slight, but "used to" stresses the regularity, and
the fact that the action has been discontinued.
Future simple
•Affirmative: He will write
•Negative: He will not / won't write
•Interrogative: Will he write?
•Negative interrogative: Will he not write?
(Won't he write?)
See the article Shall and Will for a discussion of the two
auxiliary verbs used to form the simple future in English.
There is also a future with "go" which is used especially
for intended actions, and for the weather, and generally
is more common in colloquial speech:
I'm going to write a book some day.
I think it's going to rain.
But the will future is preferred for spontaneous decisions:
Jack: "I think we should have a barbecue!"
Jill: "Good idea! I'll go get the coal.
Tenses: Perfect Forms
Present perfect
Traditionally just called the perfect.
Affirmative: He has written
Negative: He has not written
Interrogative: Has he written?
Negative interrogative: Has he not written? (Hasn't he
written?)




This indicates that a past event has one of a range of possible relationships to
the present. This may be a focus on present result: He has written a very fine
book (and look, here it is, we have it now). Or it may indicate a time-frame
which includes the present. I have lived here since my youth (and I still do).
Compare: Have you written a letter this morning? (it is still morning) with Did
you write a letter this morning? (it is now afternoon). The perfect tenses are
frequently used with the adverbs already or recently or with since clauses.
Although the label “perfect tense” implies a completed action, the present
perfect can identify habitual (I have written letters since I was ten years old.) or
continuous (I have lived here for fifteen years.) action.
In addition to these normal uses where the time
frame either is the present or includes the
present, the “have done” construct is used in
temporal clauses to define a future time: When
you have written it, show it to me. It also forms a
past infinitive, used when infinitive constructions
require a past perspective: Mozart is said to have
written his first symphony at the age of eight.
(Notice that if not for the need of an infinitive,
the simple past would have been used here: He
wrote it at age eight.) The past infinitive is also
used in the conditional perfect.
Past perfect
Or the "pluperfect"
•Affirmative: He had written
•Negative: He had not / hadn't written
•Interrogative: Had he written?
•Negative interrogative: Had he not written? (Hadn't he
written?)
Future perfect
•Affirmative: He will have written
•Negative: He will not / won't have written
•Interrogative: Will he have written?
•Negative interrogative: Will he not have written?
(Won't he have written?)
Used for something which will be completed by a certain time (perfect in
the literal sense) or which leads up to a point in the future which is being
focused on.
I will have finished my essay by Thursday.
By then she will have been there for three weeks.
Tenses: Progressive Forms
Present progressive
Or present continuous.
Affirmative: He is writing
Negative: He is not writing
Interrogative: Is he writing?
Negative interrogative: Is he not writing? (Isn't he
writing?)
This form describes the simple engagement in a present
activity, with the focus on action in progress "at this
very moment". It too can indicate a future, particularly
when discussing plans already in place: I am flying to
Paris tomorrow. Used with "always" it suggests
irritation; compare He always does that (neutral) with
He's always doing that. Word order differs here in the
negative interrogative between the hyper formal is he
not writing and the usual isn't he writing?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Past continuous
Or imperfect or past progressive.
•Affirmative: He was writing
•Negative: He was not writing
•Interrogative: Was he writing?
•Negative interrogative: Was he not writing? (Wasn't he
writing?)
This is typically used for two events in parallel:
While I was washing the dishes my wife was walking the
dog.
Or for an interrupted action (the past simple being used
for the interruption):
While I was washing the dishes I heard a loud noise.
Or when we are focusing on a point in the middle of a
longer action:
At three o'clock yesterday I was working in the garden.
(Contrast: I worked in the garden all day yesterday.)
Future progressive
•Affirmative: He will be writing
•Negative: He will not / won't be
writing
•Interrogative: Will he be writing?
•Negative interrogative: Will he not be
writing? (Won't he be writing?)
Used especially to indicate that an
event will be in progress at a particular
point in the future: This time tomorrow
I will be taking my driving test.
Tenses: Perfect Progressive Forms
Present perfect progressive
Or continuous.
Affirmative: He has been writing
Negative: He has not been writing
Interrogative: Has he been writing?
Negative interrogative: Has he not been
writing? (Hasn't he been writing?)
Used for unbroken action in the past which
continues right up to the present. I have been
writing this paper all morning (and still am).
1.
2.
3.
4.
Past perfect progressive
Or "pluperfect progressive" or "continuous"
•Affirmative: He had been writing
•Negative: He had not been / hadn't been writing
•Interrogative: Had he been writing?
•Negative interrogative: Had he not been writing? (Hadn't he been
writing?)
•Relates to the past perfect much as the present perfect progressive
relates to the present perfect, but tends to be used with less
precision.
"
Future perfect progressive
Or future perfect continuous.
•Affirmative: He will have been writing
•Negative: He will not / won't have been writing
•Interrogative: Will he have been writing?
•Negative interrogative: Will he not have been writing? (Won't he
have been writing?)
Conditional
Or past subjunctive.
•Affirmative: He would write
•Negative: He would not / wouldn't write
•Interrogative: Would he write?
•Negative interrogative: Would he not write? (Wouldn't he write?)
Used principally in a main clause accompanied by an implicit or
explicit doubt or "if-clause"; may refer to conditional statements in
present or future time:
I would like to pay now if it's not too much trouble. (in present time;
doubt of possibility is explicit)
I would like to pay now. (in present time; doubt is implicit)
I would do it if she asked me to. (in future time; doubt is explicit)
I would do it. (in future time; doubt is implicit)
(A very common error by foreign learners is to put the would into the
if-clause itself. A humorous formulation of the rule for the EFL
classroom runs: "If and would you never should, if and will makes
teacher ill!" But of course, both will and would CAN occur in an ifclause when expressing volition. A student of English may rarely
encounter the incorrect construction as it can occur as an archaic
form.)
Passive- Active Voice, Active conjugation
There are 2 voices:
Active voice (I play)
Passive voice (I am played)
•
•
Active conjugation
Weak verbs (to play)
Non-finite
forms
Infinitives
Participles
Gerunds
to play (present simple), to be playing (present
simple progressive), to have played (present perfect),
to have been playing (present perfect progressive)
playing (present), being playing (present simple
progressive), having played (present perfect), having
been playing (present perfect progressive)
playing (present), being playing (present simple
progressive), having played (present perfect), having
been playing (present perfect progressive)
Indicative
I
you
thou
he, she, it
we
you
they
simple present
play
play
playest
plays
(playeth)
play
play
play
intensive
present
do play do play
doest
play
does play
do play do play do play
(doeth play)
simple present
progressive
am
are
art
is playing
playing playing playing
simple past
played
played
playeds
played
t
played
played
played
intensive past
did
play
did
play
didst
play
did
play
did
play
did
play
simple past
progressive
was
were
wert
were
were
were
was playing
playing playing playing
playing playing playing
simple future
shall/wi shall/wi shalt/wi shall/will
ll play ll play lt play play
did play
are
are
are
playing playing playing
shall/wi shall/wi shall/wi
ll play ll play ll play
simple
future
progressive
shall/will
be
playing
shall/will
be
playing
shalt/wilt
be
playing
shall/will be
playing
shall/will
be
playing
shall/will
be
playing
shall/will be
playing
present
perfect
have
played
have
played
hast
played
has played
(haveth
played)
have
played
have
played
have played
present
perfect
progressive
have
been
playing
have
been
playing
have been
hast been playing
playing
(haveth been
playing)
have
been
playing
have
been
playing
have been
playing
past perfect
(pluperfect)
had
played
had
played
hadst
played
had played
had
played
had
played
had played
past perfect
(pluperfect)
progressive
had been
playing
had been
playing
hadst
been
playing
had been
playing
had been
playing
had been
playing
had been playing
future
perfect
shall/will
have
played
shall/will
have
played
shalt/wilt
have
played
shall/will
have played
shall/will
have
played
shall/will
have
played
shall/will have
played
future
perfect
progressive
shall/will
have
been
playing
shall/will
have
been
playing
shalt/wilt
have
been
playing
shall/will
have been
playing
shall/will
have
been
playing
shall/will
have
been
playing
shall/will have
been playing
Conditio
nal
I
you
thou
he, she,
it
we
you
they
simple
present
would
play
would
play
wouldst
play
would
play
would
play
would
play
would
play
simple
present
progressi
ve
wouldst
would be would be
be
playing playing
playing
would be would be would be would be
playing playing playing playing
present
perfect
would
have
played
would
have
played
wouldst
have
played
would
have
played
would
have
played
would
have
played
would
have
played
present
perfect
progressi
ve
would
have
been
playing
would
have
been
playing
wouldst
have
been
playing
would
have
been
playing
would
have
been
playing
would
have
been
playing
would
have
been
playing
Potential
I
you
thou
he, she, it
we
you
they
simple present
may play
may play
mayest
play
may play
may play
may play
may play
simple present
progressive
may be
playing
may be
playing
mayest be
playing
may be
playing
may be
playing
may be
playing
may be
playing
simple past
might
play
might
play
mightst
play
might
play
might
play
might
play
might
play
simple past
progressive
might be
playing
might be
playing
mightst be
playing
might be
playing
might be
playing
might be
playing
might be
playing
present perfect
may have
played
may have
played
mayest
have
played
may have
played
may have
played
may have
played
may have
played
present perfect
progressive
may have
been
playing
may have
been
playing
mayest
have been
playing
may have
been
playing
may have
been
playing
may have
been
playing
may have
been
playing
past perfect
(pluperfect)
might
have
played
might
have
played
mightst
have
played
might
have
played
might
have
played
might
have
played
might
have
played
past perfect
(pluperfect)
progressive
might
have been
playing
might
have been
playing
might
have been
playing
might
have been
playing
might
have been
playing
might
have been
playing
might
have been
playing
Subjunctive
I
you
thou
he, she, it
we
you
they
simple present
play
play
play
play
play
play
play
simple present
progressive
be
be playing be playing playing/beest
playing
be playing be playing be playing be playing
simple past
played
played
played
played
played
played
played
simple past
progressive
were
playing
were
playing
were playing
were
playing
were
playing
were
playing
were
playing
simple future
should
play
should
play
shouldst play
should
play
should
play
should
play
should
play
simple future
progressive
should be
playing
should be
playing
shouldst be
playing
should be
playing
should be
playing
should be
playing
should be
playing
present perfect
have
played
have
played
have played
have
played
have
played
have
played
have
played
present perfect
progressive
have been
playing
have been
playing
have been
playing
have been
playing
have been
playing
have been
playing
have been
playing
past perfect
(pluperfect)
had
played
had
played
had played
had
played
had
played
had
played
had
played
past perfect
(pluperfect)
progressive)
had been
playing
had been
playing
had been
playing
had been
playing
had been
playing
had been
playing
had been
playing
future perfect
should
have
played
should
have
played
shouldst
have
played
should
have
played
should
have
played
should
have
played
should
have
played
future perfect
progressive
should
have been
playing
should
have been
playing
shouldst
have been
playing
should
have been
playing
should
have been
playing
should
have been
playing
should
have been
playing
Imperative
I
you
thou
he, she, it
we
you
they
simple present
let me
play
play
let
him/her/it
play
let ' s play play
let them
play
simple present
(with to do)
do let me
play
do play
do play
do let
him/her/it
play
do let us
play
do play
do let
them play
simple present
progressive
let me be
playing
be
playing
be playing
let
him/her/it
be playing
let ' s be
playing
be
playing
let them
be
playing
simple present
progressive
(with to do)
do let me
be
playing
do be
playing
do be
playing
do let
him/her/it
be playing
do let us
be
playing
do be
playing
do let
them be
playing
play
present
perfect
let me
have
played
present
do let
perfect (with me have
to do)
played
have
playe
d
let
have him/her/it
played have
played
let ' s
have
played
do
have
playe
d
do let
do
him/her/it
have
have
played
played
do
do let us
have
have
playe
played
d
do let
them
have
played
have
playe
d
let them
have
played
present
perfect
progressive
let me
have
been
playing
have
been
playin
g
have
been
playin
g
let
him/her/it
have been
playing
let ' s
have
been
playing
have
been
playin
g
let them
have
been
playing
present
perfect
progressive
(with to do)
do let
me have
been
playing
do
have
been
playin
g
do
have
been
playin
g
do let
him/her/it
have been
playing
do
do let us
have
have
been
been
playin
playing
g
do let
them
have
been
playing
Auxiliaries
To do
The verb to do is used to form the active
indicative intensive present, the active indicative
intensive past and the imperative mood, except
for the modal verbs and the verb to be which do
not possess such forms
The verb to do is used to form the negative and
question form of the active indicative simple
present, the active indicative simple past and the
imperative mood, except for the modal verbs and
the verb to be which do not possess such forms
The forms do not and does not can be shortened
to don't and doesn't
Nonfinite
forms
to do (present simple), to be doing (present simple
Infinit
progressive), to have done (present perfect), to have
ives
been doing (present perfect progressive)
doing(present), being doing (present simple
Partic
progressive), having done (present perfect), having
iples
been doing (present perfect progressive)
doing (present), being doing (present simple
Geru
progressive), having done (present perfect), having
nds
been doing (present perfect progressive)
Indicative
I
you
thou
he, she,
it
we
you
they
simple
present
do
do
doest
does
(doeth)
do
do
do
doest do
does do
(doeth
do)
do do
do do
do do
intensive
present
do do
simple
present
progressive
am doing are doing art doing is doing
are doing are doing are doing
simple past
did
do do
did
didst
did
did
did
did
intensive past did do
did do
didst do
did do
did do
did do
did do
simple past
progressive
was
doing
were
doing
wert
doing
was
doing
were
doing
were
doing
were
doing
simple future
shall/will shall/will shalt/wilt shall/will shall/will shall/will shall/will
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
simple future
progressive
shall/will shall/will shalt/wilt shall/will shall/will shall/will shall/will
be doing be doing be doing be doing be doing be doing be doing
present
perfect
have
done
have
done
hast
done
has done
(haveth
done)
present
perfect
progressive
have
been
doing
have
been
doing
hast
been
doing
have been
have
doing
been
(haveth been
doing
doing)
past perfect
(pluperfect)
had
done
had
done
hadst
done
had done
had
done
past perfect
(pluperfect)
progressive
hadst
had been had been
been
doing
doing
doing
had been
doing
had been had been had been
doing
doing
doing
future
perfect
shall/wil
l have
done
shall/wil
l have
done
shalt/wil
t have
done
shall/will
have done
shall/wil
l have
done
shall/wil
l have
done
shall/wil
l have
done
future
perfect
progressive
shall/wil
l have
been
doing
shall/wil
l have
been
doing
shalt/wil
t have
been
doing
shall/will
have been
doing
shall/wil
l have
been
doing
shall/wil
l have
been
doing
shall/wil
l have
been
doing
have
done
have
done
have
done
have
been
doing
have
been
doing
had
done
had
done
Condition
I
al
you
thou
he, she,
it
we
you
they
simple
present
would
do
wouldst
do
would
do
would
do
would
do
would
do
would
do
simple
present
would be would be wouldst
progressiv doing
doing
be doing
e
would be would be would be would be
doing
doing
doing
doing
present
perfect
would
have
done
would
have
done
wouldst
have
done
would
have
done
would
have
done
would
have
done
would
have
done
present
perfect
progressiv
e
would
have
been
doing
would
have
been
doing
wouldst
have
been
doing
would
have
been
doing
would
have
been
doing
would
have
been
doing
would
have
been
doing
Potential
I
you
thou
he, she, it
we
you
they
simple present
may do
may do
mayest do
may do
may do
may do
may do
simple present
progressive
may be
doing
may be
doing
mayest be
doing
may be
doing
may be
doing
may be
doing
may be
doing
simple past
might do
might do
mightst do
might do
might do
might do
might do
simple past
progressive
might be
doing
might be
doing
mightst be
doing
might be
doing
might be
doing
might be
doing
might be
doing
present perfect
may have
done
may have
done
mayest
have done
may have
done
may have
done
may have
done
may have
done
present perfect
progressive
may have
been
doing
may have
been
doing
mayest
have been
doing
may have
been
doing
may have
been
doing
may have
been
doing
may have
been
doing
past perfect
(pluperfect)
might
have done
might
have done
mightst
have done
might
have done
might
have done
might
have done
might
have done
past perfect
(pluperfect)
progressive
might
have been
doing
might
have been
doing
mightst
have been
doing
might
have been
doing
might
have been
doing
might
have been
doing
might
have been
doing
Subjunctive
I
you
thou
he, she, it
we
you
they
simple present
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
be doing
be doing
be doing
be doing
simple present
progressive
be doing
be doing
be
doing/beest
doing
simple past
did
did
did
did
did
did
did
simple past
progressive
were doing
were doing
were doing
were doing
were doing
were doing
were doing
simple future
should do
should do
shouldst do
should do
should do
should do
should do
simple future
progressive
should be
doing
should be
doing
shouldst be
doing
should be
doing
should be
doing
should be
doing
should be
doing
present perfect
have done
have done
have done
have done
have done
have done
have done
present perfect
progressive
have been
doing
have been
doing
have been
doing
have been
doing
have been
doing
have been
doing
have been
doing
past perfect
(pluperfect)
had done
had done
had done
had done
had done
had done
had done
past perfect
(pluperfect)
progressive
had been
doing
had been
doing
had been
doing
had been
doing
had been
doing
had been
doing
had been
doing
future perfect
should have
done
should have
done
shouldst
have done
should have
done
should have
done
should have
done
should have
done
future perfect
progressive
should have
been doing
should have
been doing
shouldst
have been
doing
should have
been doing
should have
been doing
should have
been doing
should have
been doing
Imperative
I
you
thou
he, she, it
we
you
they
simple present
let me do
do
do
let him/her/it do
let ' s do
do
let them do
simple present
(with to do)
do let me do
do do
do
do let him/her/it
do
do let us do
do do
do let them
do
simple present
progressive
let me be
doing
be doing
be doing
let him/her/it be
doing
let ' s be
doing
be doing
let them be
doing
simple present
progressive (with to
do)
do let me be
doing
do be
doing
do be
doing
do let him/her/it
be doing
do let us be
doing
do be
doing
do let them
be doing
present perfect
let me have
done
have
done
have
done
let him/her/it
have done
let ' s have
done
have
done
let them have
done
present perfect
(with to do)
do let me
have done
do have
done
do have
done
do let him/her/it
have done
do let us
have done
do have
done
do let them
have done
present perfect
progressive
let me have
been doing
have
been
doing
have
been
doing
let him/her/it
have been doing
let ' s have
been doing
have
been
doing
let them have
been doing
present perfect
progressive (with to
do)
do let me
have been
doing
do have
been
doing
do have
been
doing
do let him/her/it
have been doing
do let us
have been
doing
do have
been
doing
do let them
have been
doing
Basic Sentence Pattern: Subject- Verb
Basic sentence patterns
A)) THREE SENTENCE PATTERNS
1.subject – verb
2.subject – verb – object
3.subject – linking verb –complement
1-subject – verb : the verb may be active or
passive
S+ v ( active)
Hornets sting ‫لدغة الدبور‬
He resigned
The girl ran ( the,a,an )
S+ passive verb
The criminal was punished
A candidate has been chosen
2- Subject – verb – object: The verb will be transitive verb
in the active voice .‫متعدي‬
I bought a coat.
She invited him.
(Intransitive = the horse ran. Birds sing)
3- Subject – linking verb –complement:
Subject – linking verb- substantive
complement
Wordsworth was a poet.
It was he.
Subject – linking verb –adjective
complement (predicate adj ).
The horse is black.
They will be happy.
The boy was healthy.
***‫ حزين‬Dreary was the day *** adjective
complement- linking
verb- subject
Subject-Verb-Object
B)) CASES IN THE THREE PATTERNS
Cases in the property of a noun or pronoun .1-the
nominative 2- the objective 3- the possessive .
1.USE OF CASES
The nominative case : it is used for the subject and for the
substantive complement.
1-subject – verb
2-subject – verb – object
3-subject – linking verb – substantive complement
4- subject – linking verb –adjective complement
B. the objective case ( some times called accusative
case) : It is used for the obj .
a.subject – verb – object .
2 . CASE FORMS
A. nouns : Nouns have the same form in
both the nominative and the objective
The girl attended the party . ( nom)
I saw the girl . ( obj )
B . pronouns : Pronouns have varying in
the nominative and the objective .
I told him .
He told me
She asked them .
They asked her .
singular
Nominativ
e case
1st person I
2nd person You
3rd person He
She
it
Plural
Objective
case
me
You
Him
Her
Nominativ
e case
We
You
they
It
DO EXERCISES 4 ,5 , AND 6
Objective
case
us
You
Them
Subject-Linking Verb- Complement
C )) TWO TYPES OF PRONOUNS OFTEN USED IN
THE SECOND PATTERN
Now we have two additional types of pronouns –
reflexive and reciprocal pronouns. these are often
appear as objects in the second basic sentence
pattern , but they also function in other ways –
especially as objects of prepositions .
1 . Reflexive pronouns ‫ الضمائر المنعكسة‬:
a . Definition : it refers to the subject of the verb
which expresses an action that affects the subject
itself .
*subject – verb – object
e. g ) I hurt myself .
he came himself .
1st
person
2nd
person
3rd
person
singular
Plural
( I )Myself
(we)Ourselves
( you )Yourself
(You)Yourself
( he ) Himself, ( (they
she) herself
)themselves
( it )Itself ,
(one)oneself
See page ( 66 )
b . Properties : it varies in form to indicate
person , number , and gender .
2 . RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS ‫ الضمائر المتبادلة‬:
a. Definition : it refers to a plural subject (
the individual subject perform a mutual or
reciprocal action .)
e.g ) they dislike each other .
we helped one another .
b . Properties : Each other usually refers to
two ; one another , to more than two .
there are no variations in form to indicate
person or gender .
DO EXERCISES 7 page 175
D )) LINKING VERBS USED IN THE THIRED
PATTERN
In addition to the verb to be , there are other verbs may be
used as linking verbs .
Subject
linking verb
complement
Act
The man
acts
enthusiastic
Appear
He
appears
young
Become
John
become
a doctor.
Note // All the sentences given above a form of the verb to
be could be inserted in place of the linking verb used ,
because they are related in meaning .
e.g ) The milk tastes sour = The milk is sour . ( ‫) حامض‬
Note // All of the linking verbs can have
adj complements ; many of them can't have
substantive comp…
The following can have sub com ( to be , to
become , to remain )
The woman is a stenographer . ‫)) كاتب االختزال‬
The athlete will become a coach .‫الالعب الرياضي‬
))
He remained a farmer .
DO EXERCISES 8 ,9 ,AND 10
Modifiers: Substantive modifier
MODIFIERS
A) FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS .
1- The substantive function .
The substantive brings a mental
image or concept of substance
.e.g) tree .
2- The verb function .
The verb brings a concept of action , possession , or state
1- S - V
Fish swim .( active )
/ the subject effects /
S
- V Obj
Fish are caught . ( passive )
/ the action effects /
Fish are caught by the men .
2- S - V - Obj
The boy hits the ball
The substantive subject acts upon substantive object .
=
3- Substance - linking verb - Substance
James
is
an athlete
James
became
an athlete
James
remained
an athlete
( = ) equal
The use of symbols to indicate the nature of the verb concept .
B)) MODIFYING THESE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS .
1- Substantive modifier :
Boys like girls.
Boys like pretty girls .
What effect does the word prety have upon the wordgirls ?Obviously
, it changes or modifies . So the word pretty bis called modifier .
( pretty ) is a substantive modifier since it effects a substantive .
Babies cry .
Some babies cry .
Students work .
No students work .
Boys are noisy .
The boys are noisy .
2-Verb Modifier
Modifiers which change or modify a verb
concept .Usually such modifiers indicate
time , place , or manner .
She studies Spanish .
Sometimes she studies Spanish .
2-The teacher gave an example .
The teacher gave an example today .
3- John ran .
John ran slowly .
The verb modifier is not necessarily near
the verb .
I
have
a new
suit .
Pattern : S - V - Modifier - Obj
The green cloth covered the table .
Modifier - S - V - Obj
The brave boy faced the angry
Modifier - S - V - Modifier - Obj
We swim frequently .
S - V - Modifier
The runner won the race easily
S
- V - Obj - Modifier
bull .
C) MODIFIERS OF
SUBSTANTIVES ( Adjective ) .
All modifiers of substantives are called a
adjectives .
Some words can be adjective in one
sentence and a verb in another .
e.g) I saw a tame bear . ‫أليف‬
‫دب‬
َ
َّ ُ‫َرأيت‬
َ
They tame lions . َ‫ضون األسود‬
‫رو‬
ّ ُ‫ي‬
TYPES OF SUBSTANTIVE MODIFIERS
Single-word substantive modifier may
divided into two classes descriptive
adjectives and definitive adjective
Descriptive adjectives :
It indicates a quality or characteristic of the
substantive it modifies .
The majority of adjectives are descriptive such
as :
(( green , blue , tall , fat , smooth , wet , cold ,
warm , light , fast , stupid , serious…. ))
e.g ) She ate a green apple .
He writes a nice story .
Note : Adjectives derived from proper nouns are
called proper adjectives . Like proper
nouns they are capitalized .
e.g ) That is an American ship .
He writes Arabic poetry .
b) definitive adjective
It indicates the identity , number , or quality of substantive .
e.g ) This essay won the prize . ( identity )
Three boys entered the room . ( number )
He had much money . ( quantity )
definitive adjective adjectives are divided into eight classes
:1) numeral ad 2)demonstrative ad 3) indefinite ad
4) article 5) possessive 6) interrogative
7)indefinite relative ad , and 8) relative ad .
1) Numeral adjectives :
It indicates number or numerical order .
numerical order such as (( one , two , ….first , second ,…
single , double , triple , …))
e.g ) I have five tickets .
The third question puzzled her .
He had a single ambition .
2) Demonstrative adjectives :
It points out particular persons or things such as this , that ,
these , those
e.g) This girl reported the fire
Everyone enjoys these books
Note : When these words serve as substantives , they are
demonstrative pronouns when they serve as substantive
modifiers , they are demonstrative adjectives .
3) Indefinite adjectives :
It indicates in general way the identity of persons or things
but don't definitely point them out .
Such as (( each , either , neither , every , much , any , some ,
no , both , few , several , many , all ))
e.g) Each graduate received a diploma .
We caught several frogs .
Note
: Most of the previous words can also be used as
indefinite pronouns . indefinite pronouns function as
substantives : indefinite adjectives function as substantives
modifiers .
4) Article:
The lightning struck .
He wore a uniform .
She wants a radio .
We ordered an incubator .( ‫حضانة‬
* She gave an hour .
In indicating sentence patterns we disregard the
presence or absence of articles .
The lightning struck
Patterns : Subject - Verb
Patterns :
Ali
wants a radio
Subject - Verb - obj
5 ) Possessive :
His attitude irritates me .
This is someone's book.
The farmer's pig escaped .
a) possessive of personal pronouns .
the possessive case is sometimes
called genitive case
singular
1st
person
2nd
person
3rd
person
Plural
Nominat possessi Nominat
ive case ve case ive case
I
My ,
We
mine
You
Your ,
You
yours
He
His
they
She
Her ,
hers
it
Its
possessi
ve case
Our ,
ours
Your ,
yours
Their ,
theirs
This is my book .
This book is mine .
The book is mine .
( adjective
complement )
The mistake was yours . (adjective
complement )
Theirs is lost .
( substantive )
I borrowed hers . ( substantive )
B ) possessive of Indefinite pronouns
It is formed by adding an apostrophe and s
to the pronoun .
One
one's
Someone
someone's
Everybody
everybody's
Nobody
nobody's
(c) Possessives of Nouns
The possessives of nouns are formed as follows:
1. Singular Noun Not Ending in "s"
To form the possessive, add an apostrophe and s.
boy
student
mayor
boy's , student's , mayor's
2. Singular Noun Ending in "s"
To form the possessive, add an apostrophe and s if there is an
added s-sound in the possessive.
Morris
Toss
Morris's
Toss's
Add only an apostrophe if there is no added Hound in the possessive. '"
Sophocles
Caruthers
Sophocles' Caruthers'
Note: With many such possessives. the
pronunciation-and hence the spelling-is optional:
Charles's, Charles' ;
Keats's , Keats'
3. Plural Noun Not Ending in "s"
To form the possessive, add an
apostrophe and s.
Women , children , salesmen
women's , children's , salesmen's
4. Plural Noun Ending in "s"
To form the possessive, add only an
apostrophe.
Girls , players , senators
girls'
players'
senators'
Do Exercise 11
1.PUNCTUATION WITH RESTRICTIVE
AND NON-RESTRICTIVE
Substantive Modifiers:
a.RESTRICTIVE SUBSTANTIVE MODIFIERS
They limits or restricts the substantive which it modifies in such a
way that the modifier is necessary for the proper identification of the
substantive. It is thus so closely connected with the substantive that no
punctuation is desirable.
( 1) Restrictive Modifier Preceding the Substantive
Adjectives functioning as restrictive modifiers usually precede the
substantive modified. This is by far the most common construction
involving the adjective.
We expected rainy weather .
He ate two(Restrictive)
eggs.
Pattern: Subject - Verb – MODEFIER - Object
Restrictive Modifier Following the Substantive .
Adjectives functioning as restrictive modifiers
may follow the substantive modified. Only
descriptive
adjectives are used in this construction. Note
that the modifier is not set off by commas.
A day lost will upset the schedule.
A man overboard delayed the ship.
Pattern: Subject– Modifiers – Verb - Object
b. NON-RESTRICTIVE SUBSTANTIVE MODIFIERS
They give added information about a substantive
which is presumed to be sufficiently identified
without the modifier. Since it is loosely connected
with the substantive, it is set off by commas
*Only descriptive adjectives can be used
as non-restrictive substantive modifiers.
*Most non-restrictive substantive
modifiers are compound adjectives or
adjective phrases. However. as shown by
the examples below, single-word
adjectives are sometimes used in this
construction.
1- Non-Restrictive Modifier Preceding the
Substantive
Unhurt , the driver examined the wreck.
Overconfident , he refused help .
2- Non-Restrictive Modifier Following the
Substantive
Adjectives functioning as non-restrictive
modifiers usually follow the substantive.
Billy, delirious, shouted threats.
Pattern : Subject Modifiers -Verb - Object
(Non-Restrictive )
3. ADJECTIVE-NOUN COMBINATIONS .
The adjective-noun combination always is modified
or serves as a modifier.
Therefore it may function in the following ways:
substantive modified by an adjective
She knitted that attractive sweater .
b. adjective modifying a substantive
He was a filling station attendant .
C . adverb modifying a verb .
I mailed the letter last night .
D . adverb modifying an adjective .
The tape is two inches wide .
E . adverb modifying another
The bus came several minutes early .
An adjective-noun combination may be what is sometimes
called a "compound noun" (e.g., a successful football coach, a
red bathing suit, a tennis racket cover), but such a
"compound noun" is not an adjective noun combination
unless it functions in one of the ways specified above.
In indicating the pattern of a construction containing 'an
adjective-noun combination, we shall enclose
the combination within a box to show that it functions as a
unit.
Examples:
My new roommate arrived
this morning.
Pattern modifier – Modifier – sub – verb –
Modifier – noun
The public relations expert planned an extensive
advertising campaign.
Pattern: Modifier –Noun -subject -Verb- Modifier
– Modifier object
An adjective modifying an
adjective-noun combination frequently functions as
part of an enlarged
combination in relation to still another adjective.
Example:
She dented your silver
serving tray.
Pattern: Subject- Verb- Modifier
4- THE ADJECTIVE
COMPLEMENT
It functions as a substantive
modifier, the substantive modify the
subject .
The man is tall .
The song was beautiful.
Pattern: S – Linking Verb – Adjective
Complement.
Modifiers: Verb Modifier
D . MODIFIERS OF VERBS ( ADVERBS )
1 ) Types of verb modifiers:
a- Adverbs of time: (( now , today , before , often , seldom , again… ))
The repairman called yesterday.
We failed twice .
Patterns – verb – modifier
b- Adverbs of place : (( here , there , down , up , out , in…. ))
We climbed up .
She stayed there .
Pattern : s – verb – modifier
c- Adverbs of manner : (( well , badly , quickly , slowly , easy …))
The boy swam slowly .
John sings well .
Pattern : s – verb – modifier
A large number of adverbs are formed by adding ( ly ) to an adjective .
2 ) Verb – Adverb combination :
A verb- Adverb combination functions as unit with
reference to an object as well as a subject .
It functions as a unit with reference to
The man gave up .
its subject .
The student handed in the paper . its subject and
its object .
The plan turned out a failure .
its subject and
its substantive complement .
The salesman stopped by often .
its subject and
its adverbial modifier .
The subject is a verb- adverbial combination
instead of being the subject of a verb alone .
The following words are used as
adverbs in A verb- Adverb combination
( across , after , away , back , by ,
down , in , on , out , off , over ,
through , under , up , with ..)
The winner gave away the
money .
Pattern : subject – verb – modifier –
object
The winner gave the money
away .
Modifiers of sentence: Adverbs: Comp. &
Superlative
E – MODIFIERS OF SENTENCES ( ADVERBS )
Unfortunately, he had left the university.
Frankly, I don't believe you.
Apparently, a thief had broken the lock.
It is fairly obvious that the adverb modifies the entire
sentence.
The words YES and NO are used as a sentence
modifiers.
Yes, you left the hat here.
No, I am not going.
G – COMPARISION
Most adjectives and adverbs have the property
of expressing degrees of comparison.
1. THE THREE DEGREES OF COMPARISON
(a) positive, (b) comparative, and
( c) superlative
a. POSITIVE DEGREE
The positive degree simply indicates a positive
quality. No comparison with any other element
is
Involved .
Cold
Beautiful
Difficult
Carefully
b. COMPARATIVE DEGREE
Colder
More beautiful
Less difficult
More carefully
c. SUPERLATIVE
. It is normally formed by adding -est to the positive degree or by using most
or: least to modify the positive degree.
Coldest
Most beautiful
Least difficult
Most carefully
Superlative
Comparative
Positive
worst
worse
badly
least
less
little
most
more
much
best
better
well
A non-restrictive modifier of the subject of a
sentence sometimes seems to perform an
adverbial function in addition to its obvious
adjectival one. Note the following examples:
The girl returned home completely well.
[The adjective well, in addition to modifying girl,
indicates a condition, under which the
returning took place,]
The child left the table hungry.
[The adjective hungry, in addition to modifying
child ,
indicates a condition under which the
leaving took place.]
The man walked away while he was angry.
The man walked away angrily.
Note that in the first sentence angry performs an
adjectival function and the entire clause while he
was angry performs an adverbial function.
I. USE OF MODIFIERS IN THE FIRST
THREE BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS
1. The substantive function
2. The verb function
3. The modifying function
All of the sentences we have
considered have been composed of
elements performing one of these
three functions.
Sentence Punctuation Patterns
Sentence Punctuation Patterns
To punctuate a sentence, you can
use and combine some of these
patterns. For more information on
independent and dependent clauses
plus independent and dependent
markers, see the following page on
independent and dependent
clauses.
Pattern One: Simple sentence
Independent clause
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death
rate from asthma.
Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from
asthma , but they don't know the reasons for it .
This pattern is an example of a compound sentence.
Pattern Two: Compound Sentence
Independent clause ; Independent clause
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death
rate from asthma; they are unsure of its cause.
Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from
asthma ; they are unsure of its cause .
This pattern is an example of a compound sentence.
Pattern Three: Compound Sentence
Independent clause ; independent marker ,
independent clause
Examples of independent markers are the following:
therefore, moreover, thus, consequently,
however, also.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death
rate from asthma; therefore, they have called for more
research into its causes.
Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from
asthma ; therefore , they have called for more research
into its causes .
This pattern is an example of a compound sentence.
Pattern Four: Complex Sentence
Dependent marker + dependent clause , Independent
clause .
Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because,
before, since, while, although, if, until, when, then,
after, as, as if.
Example: Because doctors are concerned about the rising
death rate from asthma, they have called for more
research into its causes.
Because doctors are concerned about the rising death
rate from asthma , they have called for more research
into its causes .
This pattern is an example of a complex sentence.
Pattern Five:
Independent clause
dependent marker + dependent clause
Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because,
before, since, while, although, if, until, when, then, after,
as, as if.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate
from asthma because it is a common, treatable illness.
Doctors are concerned
about the rising death
rate from asthma
because it is a
common,
treatable illness
This pattern is an example of a complex
sentence
.
Pattern Six:
First part of an
independent clause
,
non-essential
clause or phrase
,
.
rest of the
independent
clause
For an example of non-essential clauses and phrases, see Commas
With Non Essential Elements (those of you reading a print copy).
Example: Many doctors, including both pediatricians and family
practice physicians, are concerned about the rising death rate from
asthma.
Many
docto
rs
,
including both
pediatricians and family
practice physicians
,
are concerned about the
rising death rate from
asthma
.
Pattern Seven:
First part of an
independent clause
essential clause or
phrase
rest of the
independent
clause
.
For an example of non-essential clauses and
phrases, see Commas With Non Essential
Elements
for Example: Many doctors who are
concerned about the rising death rate from
asthma have called for more research into its
causes.
who are concerned about the
M rising death rate from asthma
a
n
y
d
o
c
t
o
r
s
have called for more research
into its causes
.