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Linguistics: Basic Grammatical Terminology Review Home Educ 4683 Dr. David Piper Dr. David Piper & Krista Yetman Select for Review • Definitions of terms • Word classes • Nouns, pronouns & determiners • Adjectives, verbs & adverbs Home • Prepositions, conjunctions & exclamations • Subject, predicate & object • Transitivity • Other rules & definitions Definitions of Terms: Spoken English may be thought of in terms of 4 levels Levels of Language Sounds Word forms Word combinations Meaning Every language has its own inventory of vowels & consonants Words in most languages change depending on factors such as plurality Word order has a marked effect on meaning. This is syntax. Many words in English have several meanings. Home Word Classes Classes Definitions Nouns A person, place or thing Pronouns The name that replaces a noun Determiners Class of words which precede nouns & adjectives Descriptive words that qualify & describe nouns Words that express action, processes or states Adverbs modify verbs or adjectives Adjectives Verbs Adverbs Prepositions Home Conjunctions Function words; describe relationships betw een things Joining words Examples Nouns, determiners & pronouns Click button of choice: • Nouns • Determiners • Pronouns • Skip to Adjectives Home Nouns (in English) • Nouns can be singular or plural (‘s’) i.e: ant + s = ants, city + s = cities, glass + s = glasses, mouse + s = mice, life + s = lives, deer + s = deer • Nouns are either masculine (man, bull, boxer), feminine (woman, mare, actress), or neuter (table, flower, book) • Nouns can be possessive i.e.: boy’s, boys’, Charles’s • Nouns are common (book, fly, tree) or proper (Erica, Acadia University, Nigerian, French) Home Return to Noun Determiners: 5 Types Articles Demonstratives Possessives Numbers Indefinite determiners the, a, and this, that, these, those my, your, his, her its, our, their Determiners when followed by nouns,i.e.: five fingers i.e.: some, any, less, more, much, either, each, every, etc. Home Return to Noun 8 types of Pronouns: Select below • • • • • • • • • Home Return to Noun Personal Possessive Reflexive Demonstrative Interrogative Relative Distributive Indefinite Skip pronouns Personal pronouns: these reflect number and case, and are divided into first, second & third person Persons First: speaker or speakers Home Number Second: person(s) spoken to Third: person(s) or thing(s) being discussed Singular: 1, me, you, you he, him, she, her it, it Pronoun Menu Plural: we, us, you, you they, them Possessive pronouns: • • • • • • • • mine (singular) yours (singular) his (singular, masculine) hers (singular, feminine) its (singular, neuter) ours (plural) yours (plural) theirs (plural) Home Pronoun Menu Reflexive pronouns Singular Plural myself ourselves yourself yourselves himself (m asc) herself (fem ) themselves itself (neut) Home Pronoun Menu Demonstrative pronouns: used to indicate closeness or remoteness from speaker This is a book. That is a book. SPEAKER Those are books. These are books. Home Pronoun Menu Interrogative pronouns: Questions words Who Which Whom What Whose Home Pronoun Menu Relative pronouns: these introduce clauses • that I’ve just sat on the hat that I bought. • which The letter which he sent has not arrived. • who John was the man who ate the pie. • whom The people on whom we rely are kind. • whose The boy whose father died has runaway. Home Pronoun Menu Distributive pronouns (often these pronouns are followed by ‘of you’ or ‘of them’) All Both Each Either Neither Some Home Pronoun Menu Indefinite pronouns - I don’t want any jelly beans. - Take some. - I don’t think so. - Has anyone eaten the beans? - Someone was eating them. - Such is way of the world! Home Pronoun Menu Adjectives, verbs & adverbs: Select below • Adjectives • Verbs The brown dog runs quickly. • Adverbs Home Skip to Adjectives: Words that describe nouns Superlative Comparative Positive biggest fastest laziest worst bigger faster lazier worse big fast lazy bad Irregular good, better, best Home Spelling vowel + consonant = doubled consonant; i.e.: bigger, fattest double vowel = single consonant i.e.: cleaner, neatest Word Order two consonants = single consonant i.e.: bolder, fastest Return to adj., verb & adv. (descriptive) + (size) + (age) + (colour) + (noun) Verbs! Verbs! Verbs! (select from menu below) Past tense Present tense General Info Auxiliary verbs Home Future tense Return to adj., verb & adv. Adverbs These words can modify verbs: She sang loudly. These words can also be: comparative (earlier) i.e.: She arrived earlier than Joe. Sentences: Certainly, we shall win. superlative (most often) about time (soon) Adjectives: She was exceptionally pretty. And other adverbs: She sang very loudly. about place (near) about reason (since) about manner (well) about condition (if) question words (when) Home Return to adj., verb & adv. Verb: General Info. • There are regular & irregular verbs. Label • Regular verbs can take the endings: ‘s’, ‘ing’ and ‘ed’. Base form Look, sing Past tense Looked, sang Non-past tense Look/looks, sing/sings To look, to sing • Irregular verbs can take the ‘ing’ endings. (regular, irregular) Infinitive Present Participle Past Participle Home Examples Return to adj., verb & adv. Looking, singing Looked, sung Verbs: Present (non-past) tense To express truths, proverbial wisdom, realities i.e.: Wax makes crayons. Main Usage Chosen for formulaic utterances i.e.: I declare... Home Return to adj., verb & adv. To describe habitual occurrences i.e.: He advises... Occurs in spontaneous commentaries i.e.: sport commentaries Verbs: Past tense • • • • • Home Past tense is formed by adding ‘ed’ or ‘d’ to the base form. Past tense does not change according to person or number. Refers to actions, states or events which took place before. Is used in dependent clauses to refer to possibility. Is used in indirect speech i.e.: He said that he sang. Return to adj., verb & adv. Verbs: Future ‘tense’ There really is no future tense in English but reference to the future may be made in the following or many other ways: a) will/shall + base form of verb I shall go to London next week. b) going to + base form of verb I’m going to drive to Halifax tomorrow. Home Return to adj., verb & adv. Auxiliary verbs: These are also known as ‘helping verbs’ These are verbs which help make information more precise... • Gives specific info about the (head)verb: I am painting. • Painting is the headverb, while am is the auxiliary verb. Home • Auxiliary verbs are also used in questions: Do you like art? (do is auxiliary, like is headverb) • In negatives: Don’t eat it! (don’t is auxiliary, eat is headverb) • For emphasis: You will paint. Return to adj., verb & adv. Prepositions, conjunctions & exclamations: Select below • Prepositions • Conjunctions • Exclamations • Skip to subject & predicate Home Prepositions: There is a reason the word ‘position’ is in preposition… A preposition is a word that describes the relationship between things (other words). • The man is beside the boy. • The radio is on the table. • The girl is in front of the woman. • The boy’s feet are in his shoes under the table. Home Return to Conjunctions: Joining words Co-ordinating: joins units of equal value (finite set) and, but, or, then, yet, either... or, neither... nor noun + noun verb + verb adjective + adjective phrase + phrase John and Mary... ... sang and danced ... kind and gentle ... on the chair or in my bag Home Subordinating: provides info when an event occurs Return to Examples: after, although, until, as, before, however, because, that, though I shall go in case they arrive. Don't sleep while you drive. I want to eat even if I'm full. She has more work than me. Exclamations! These are often referred to as ‘involuntary interjections’: • Wow! Hey! Ouch! Oh! Occasionally words & phrases are exclamations: • • • • Home You fool! That silly dog! What a mess! How you’ve grown! Return to Subject, predicate & object • Subject • Predicate • Object • Skip to Transivity Home Subject Subject: a noun-like unit which: precedes predicate in declarative sentences occurs within predicate in interrogative sentences exceptions: with 'be' & 'have' when used as headverbs Children like sweets. Do children like sweets? Children have good eyes. Seeing is believing. Home It is snowing. Are children naughty? Return to Subj., Pred. & Obj. Predicate: The verbal unit of a sentence Home Subject Predicate This young man minds the sheep. The girl sang a song. The balloons float. The girl hasn't any money. Return to Subj., Pred. & Obj. Object: A noun-like unit which usually comes last in the predicate, following the main (transitive) verb. Predicate Subject Transitive verb The young man minds Object The girl sang a song. The girl hasn't any money. the sheep. *Please note: there are also indirect & direct objects Home Return to Subj., Pred. & Obj. Transitivity • • • • • • Home Nominals Intransitive verbs Transitive verbs Active voice Passive voice Skip to additional info Nominals The term nominal is used to comprehend nouns, pronouns, proper names & noun phrases. Verbs may be classified by the number of nominals they require. For example: ‘arrive’ requires only one nominal, so is called a ‘one-place verb’. The elephant arrived. Subject (nominal) Home Return to One-place verb: only needs one nominal Intransitive verbs John died. Subject (nominal) Home Intransitive verb Return to One-place verbs are intransitive because they do not take an object (they only need one nominal). For example: John died. (This is all you need to explain what happened to John). Transitive Verbs Two-place and three-place verbs are transitive because they take a subject and an object (they require at least two nominals). For example: The blue car hit the yellow car. Subject Home Transitive verb Object Return to The verb ‘hit’ requires two nominals (we need to know what is hit) , therefore is a transitive verb. Active voice: We say that a sentence is active when the subject is the agent of the action. Amy baked the pie. (active) The pie was baked by Amy (passive) Notice that the object of the active sentence (the pie) becomes the subject of the passive sentence. *An active sentence must have at least two nominals. Home Return to Passive voice: We say that a sentence is passive when the subject receives the action. The violin was played by Rupert. (passive) In the passive sentence, the violin is the subject which receives the action. Rupert played the violin. (active) *A passive sentence may only have one nominal i.e.: The violin was played. Home Return to Additional Information: The information in this PowerPoint has been very basic. It has been designed to provide you with basic definitions only. Many of these definitions will be covered in more detail, and elaborated, within the course itself. Home Meanwhile, if you have any remaining questions about basic grammatical terms, please note them down and bring them to class for discussion. Hope all this was useful…Try to enjoy the course! END