Download Writing and Grammar

Writing and Grammar
Your Road Map for Successful
Writing Habits
J. King 2010
Nouns and Pronouns
Common and Proper Nouns
A common noun names any one of a class
of people, places, or things.
i.e. writer, order, building
A proper noun names a specific person,
place, or thing.
i.e. Mark Twain, Odonata, White House
Count and Noncount Nouns
Count nouns refer to entities that are viewed
as countable. Count nouns therefore have
both a singular and a plural and they can be
accompanied by determiners that refer to
distinctions in number:
A
ten
One
student
many
students
Every
those
Count and Noncount Nouns
Noncount nouns refer to entities that are viewed as
a mass that cannot be counted; for example, bread,
furniture, music. They are treated as singular and
can be accompanied only by determiners that do
not refer to distinctions in number:
Much
Your
information
That
Noun Suffixes
A noun is a word that can be the only or
main word in a noun phrase. WE cannot
identify all nouns merely by their form, but
certain suffixes can be added to verbs or
adjectives to make nouns. Here are a few
typical noun suffixes with words that
exemplify them:
Noun Suffixes
-tion (and variants) education, relation,
invasion, revision
-er, -or camper, speaker; actor,
supervisory
-ing
building, writing
-ity
mentality, normality, reality, sanity
-ness
happiness, compactness
Pronouns and Antecedents
Pronouns are words that stand for nouns or
for words that take the place of nouns.
i.e. he, his, her, hers
Antecedents are nouns (or words that take
the place of nouns) for which pronouns
stand.
i.e. Michael said he lost his watch at the
fair.
Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns refer to the person
speaking (first person), the person spoken to
(second person), or the person, place or
thing spoken about (third person).
Singular
Plural
First Person
I, me, my, mine
We, us, our, ours
Second Person
You, your, yours
You, your, yours
Third Person
He, him, his, she
,her, hers, it, its
They, them, their,
theirs
Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns
A reflexive pronoun ends in –self or –
selves and indicates that someone or
something performs an action to, for or
upon itself. Reflexive pronouns point back
to a noun or pronoun earlier in the sentence.
An intensive pronoun ends in –self or –
selves and simply adds emphasis to a noun
or pronoun in the same sentence.
Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns
Singular
Plural
First Person
Myself
Ourselves
Second Person
Yourself
Yourselves
Third Person
Himself, herself, itself
Themselves
Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns
Reflexive: Joy helped herself to some turkey.
They poured themselves some milk.
Intensive: The mayor herself attended the
carnival.
An intensive pronoun usually comes directly
after its antecedent, but not always.
Frank fixed the refrigerator himself.
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns direct attention to
specific people, places, or things.
Demonstrative pronouns come before or after
their antecedents
Before: This is the person we want to hire.
After: Of all the celebrations in the world, that is
my favorite.
Singular
Plural
This, that
These, those
Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun begins a subordinate
clause (A group of words that has both a
subject and a verb but cannot stand alone as
a sentence.) and connects it to another idea
in a sentence.
Relative pronouns: that, which, who, whom,
whose
Independent Clause vs.
Subordinate Clause
Independent Clause
Subordinate Clause
We planted a shrub
that attracts ladybugs.
I saw a cicada,
which was a surprise.
Louisa is a player
who pitched first.
Phil is the debater
whom the judges chose.
We visited Grandmother
whose house is in New Orleans.
Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is used to begin
a question.
Interrogative pronouns: what, which, who,
whom, whose
i.e. Which of the vegetables do you want?
i.e. Who will go with me to the park?
Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns refer to people, places,
or things, often without specifying which
one.
Singular
Plural
Singular or
Plural
Another everyone nothing
Anybody everything one
Anyone little
other
Anything much
somebody
Each
neither
someone
Either
nobody something
Everybody no one
Both
Few
Many
Others
Several
All
Any
More
Most
None
some
Verbs
Action Verbs
An action verb that tells what action
someone or something is performing
i.e. The king rules.
i.e. Famine struck the people.
Intransitive Verbs
Intransitive verbs are capable of expressing
themselves without a complement to
complete their meaning.
Example: The dog coughed.
We huddled under our ponchos through the
opera in the rain.
John slouched past the fountain.
Transitive Verbs
Transitive Verbs are those that cannot
complete their meaning without the help of
a direct object.
Example: We bounced the idea around the
saloon.
He yanked her out of her daze.
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
An action verb is transitive if it directs action toward
someone or something named in the same sentence.
An action verb is intransitive if it does not direct
action toward someone or something named in the
sentence.
Transitive: Pat carried her books to the lecture in Asia
Intransitive: The temperature fell quickly.
Transitive: Bill reads books about Asia.
Intransitive: Bill reads every night before going to
bed.
Linking Verbs
A linking verb is a verb that connects a
word at or near the beginning of a sentence
with a word at or near the end.
The most common linking verb is some
form of the verb be.
i.e. Sara is an astronaut.
i.e. He was glad.
The Forms of Be
Am
Are
Is
Was
Were
Am being
Are being
Is being
Was being
Were being
Can be
Could be
May be
Might be
Must be
Shall be
Should be
Will be
Would be
Have been
Has been
Had been
Could have been
May have been
Might have been
Must have been
Shall have been
Should have been
Will have been
Would have been
Other Linking Verbs
The situation on board remained serious.
The astronauts grew anxious.
Appear
Become
Feel
Grow
Look
Remain
Seem
Smell
Sound
Stay
Taste
Turn
Linking Verb or Action Verb
A verb is functioning as a linking verb if am, are,
or is can logically be substituted for the verb.
Linking Verbs
Action Verbs
The pears taste sweet.
I taste the red pepper.
The pears are sweet. (linking)
I am the red pepper. (not
linking)
Apollo 13 appears ready.
Apollo 13 appears suddenly.
Apollo 13 is ready. (linking)
Apollo 13 is suddenly. (not
linking)
The runner grew tired.
He grew a beard.
The runner is tired. (linking)
He is a beard. (not linking)
Helping Verbs
Helping verbs are verbs that can be added
to another verb to make a single verb
phrase.
Helping Verbs Other Than the Forms of Be
Do
Have
Shall
Can
Does
Has
Should
Could
Did
Had
Will
May
Would
Might
Must
Recognizing Helping
Verbs/Auxiliary Verbs
Verb Phrases
Helping Verbs
Verbs
Am
Did
Can
Will be
Should have
Might have been
Talking
Play
Write
Studying
Seen
Considered
Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjectives
An adjective is a word used to describe a noun or
pronouns or to give a noun or pronoun a more
specific meaning.
The process by which an adjective describes a
word or makes it more specific is called
modification.
Adjectives must answer the question What kind?
Which one? How many? Or How much? about the
nouns and pronouns they modify.
Adjectives Answering Questions
What Kind?
Red boat
Sick passenger
silver jewelry
cool water
Which One?
Third chance
This train
any piece
those apples
How Many?
Six cars
Both answers
several reasons
few letters
How Much?
Enough space
No rain
more energy
little effort
Articles
Three adjectives—the, a, and an—are articles.
The is called the definite article; a and an are
called indefinite articles.
The definite article, the, indicates that the noun
it modifies refers to a specific person, place, or
thing. The indefinite articles, a and an, indicate
that the nouns they modify refer to any one of
a class of people, places, or things.
Attributive Adjectives
Adjectives are attributive (attributing a
quality to what is denoted by a noun) when
they are being used as premodifiers.
Example: You are the very person I was
looking for.
Example: That is utter nonsense.
Predicative Adjectives
Adjectives are predicative (part of the
predicate) when they are being used as
complements.
Example: I made the bed comfortable.
Example: We are happy to see you.
Central Adjectives
Central Adjectives can be used in all three
functions.
She is an old woman.
She is old.
I consider her old.
Adjective Suffixes
-able, -ible
-al, -ial
-ed
-ful
-ic
-ical
-ish
-ive, -ative
-less
-ous, -eous, -ious
-y
Nouns Used as Adjectives
A noun used as an adjective answers the
question What kind? or Which one? About a
noun that follows it.
Guitar music (What kind of music?)
Evening meal (Which meal?)
Proper and Compound Adjectives
A proper adjective is a proper noun used as an adjective
or an adjective formed from a proper noun.
Examples:
Alcott novel, Chicago storm, Jeffersonian democracy,
Mexican art
Adjectives made up of more than one word are called
compound adjectives.
Examples:
far-off land, hard-shell crabs, farsighted leader,
hardhearted neighbor
Adverbs
An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb.
Adverbs Modifying Verbs
Where?
Fell below
Went there
When?
Arrived today
Left early
In What Way?
Happily ran
Danced awkwardly
To What Extent?
Partly understands
wash completely
Adverbs
An adverb is a word that can be the only or main
word in an adverb phrase. The suffix –ly is
commonly added to adjectives to make adverbs.
Calmly, frankly, lightly, madly, tearfully
If the adjective ends in –ic, the suffix is usually –
ically
Economically, geographically, heroically,
romantically
Adverbs (continued)
The suffix –wise is added to nouns to make
adverbs.
Clockwise, lengthwise, moneywise,
weatherwise
Many adverbs have no suffix:
Now, afterwards, here, outside, therefore,
however
Adverbs (continued)
Adverbs modify and thus typically precede verbs and
adjectives—the factory was well run, the man was
extremely tired, etc.
Adverbs (adverbials):
Of time: at two o’ clock, now
Of manner: in a slip-shod way, haphazardly
Of frequency: every three weeks, repeatedly
Of duration: ad infinitum, eternally
Of location or direction: home, away, ahead
Of attitude toward an event or action: with contempt,
frankly
Prepositions, Conjunctions, and
Interjections
Prepositions
A preposition is a word that relates a noun
or pronoun that appears with it to another
word in the sentence.
Examples
About, behind, down ,off, till, toward,
under, upon, since, through, inside, beyond,
before, etc.
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word used to connect
other words or groups of words.
Coordinating Conjunctions connect similar
kinds of words or similar groups of words.
Examples: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet
Conjunctions (continued)
Subordinating Conjunctions: connect two
complete ideas by making one of the ideas
subordinate to the other. To subordinate
means to “place below another in rank or
importance”.
Examples:
Although, even though, unless, as long as,
as soon as, etc.
Interjections
Interjections are used to express emotion.
Examples: Ouch, Wow, Oh, Uh, Whew, etc.
Particles
Particles
Words that do not change their form.
A function word that does not belong to any of the
inflected grammatical word classes (such as
nouns, pronouns, verbs, or articles). It is a catchall term for a heterogeneous set of words and
terms that lack a precise lexical definition
Examples:
At, away, by, for, the, to