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3.2 Chapter 3,
Muhammad
The career of the prophet Muhammad mainly from a
historical point of view
Views about historicity: Three kinds of approaches
1. Traditional: accept all or most of what has been reported
 Accept the received view of the authenticity or hadith about
Muhammad’s life.
 Accept at least some of the miracles reported – e.g. washing of
Muhammad’s heart
 Variations:
◦ More or less strict view of hadith
◦ Sectarian or ideological differences: e.g. Sunni vs Shi‘i
2. Extreme critical: virtually no value to traditional account
 Qur’an may have been completed later than Muhammad (a few
critics)
 Qur’an does not give contexts for its statements (most critics)
 Hadith have no historical value for Muhammad
 Evidence, in Qur’an and elsewhere, that Islam developed
elsewhere than in Mecca and Medina
 Evidence for socal conditions other than what is usually assumed
(e.g. no long distance trade based in Mecca)
3. Critical
 Qur’an is genuine
 Qur’an does not give contexts for its statements.
 Hadith properly sifted and evaluated may yield
some, less than certain, historical information.
 Little is known with any certainty for the period
before the Hijra.
 F. E. Peters:
“And in dealing with Muhammad, where the Quran
is the historian’s chief ‘document,’ it seems most
useful and productive simply to apply a
combination of common sense and some modern
heuristic devices to the traditional accounts. We
must begin with the traditional material and
attempt to make some sense out of it.”
(Muhammad and the Origins of Islam, p. 266)
Arabia during Muhammad’s time
Timeline
c. 570?
582?
595
610
615?
619
622
624
625
627
628
630, Jan.
630, Feb
630-1
632
Birth of Muhammad. Abraha’s expedition against
Mecca (?). (Qur’an 105)
Trip to Syria; recognized by monk
Married Khadija.
Muhammad’s first revelation in the cave at Hira’.
Hijra of some of Muhammad’s followers to Ethiopia.
Death of Khadija and Muhammad’s uncle and
protector.
Hijra to Medina.
Battle of Badr.
Battle of Uhud.
Battle of the Trench.
Treaty of Hudaybiyya.
Mecca capitulates to Muhammad. Ka‘ba cleansed of
idols.
Battle of Hunayn, Bedouin confederacy defeated
Year of deputations
Farewell Hajj. Death of Muhammad
Early years
Qur’an on Muhammad’s early years:
“Did he not find you and orphan, and shelter you?
Did he not find you erring, and guide you?
Did he not find you needy and enrich you?” (93:6-8)
Orphan:
His father died before he was born, mother when he was 6; under
the protection of his grandfather for two years and then his uncle,
Abu Talib.
Angels wash his heart and remove a black spot (while shepherding
sheep)
Recognized as a prophet by a Christian hermit, when an adolescent
with a trading caravan to Syria.
Honest: called “Amin (trustworthy)”
Khadija’s Agent; later married her (aged 25)
Replaced the Black Stone in the Ka‘ba (about 35 years old)
Revelation


Muhammad was engaging in devotions at Mt.
Hira, near Mecca
A powerful figure, identified as the angel Gabriel
appeared to him
◦ Some scholars think the figure was first identified as God
Commanded him to recite (or read)
He replied “What shall I recite/read?” “Or I
cannot recite/read.”
 He was compelled to recite:
“Recite: In the Name of your Lord who created,
Created man from blood clotted,
Recite! Your Lord is the most beneficent,
Who taught by the Pen,
Taught that which they knew not to men.”


Revelation ctd

He feared he was becoming a poet or
majnūn (jinn possessed)
◦ There is reason to believe that his experience
had something in common with the
experiences of these, and also kāhins
◦ though the content and significance are much
greater

Was reassured by Gabriel, then by
Khadija, then by her cousin Waraqa, who
identified him as a prophet.
Passages from the accounts of Ibn Hisham and Al-Tabari
When it was the night on which God honored him with his mission,
and showed mercy on His servants thereby, Gabriel brought him
the command of God. "He came to me," said the Messenger,
"while I was asleep, with a piece of brocade whereon was writing,
and said 'Recite!' and I said 'What shall I recite?' He pressed me
with it so tightly that I thought it was death; then he let me go
and said 'Recite!' I said, 'What shall I recite?' He pressed me
with it again so that I thought it was death, then he let me go
and said 'Recite!' I said 'But what shall I read?' - And this I said
only to deliver myself from him lest he should do the same to me
again, but he said:
'Recite: In the Name of your Lord who created,
Created man from blood clotted,
Recite! Your Lord is the most beneficent,
Who taught by the Pen,
Taught that which they knew not to men.'
So I recited it, and he departed from me. And I awoke from my
sleep, and it was as though these words were written on my
heart.
(From al-Tabari ctd)
"Now none of God's creatures was more hateful to me
than an (ecstatic) poet or a man possessed; I could
not even bear to look at them, I thought, 'Woe is mepoet or possessed. Never shall Quraysh say that of
me! I will go to the top of the mountain and throw
myself down that I may kill myself and gain rest.'
When I was midway on the mountain, I heard a voice
from heaven saying, 'O Muhammad! Thou art the
Apostle of God and I am Gabriel.' I raised my head
towards heaven to see, and lo! Gabriel in the form of
a man, with feet astride the horizon, saying, 'O
Muhammad! Thou art the Apostle of God, and I am
Gabriel.' I stood gazing at him, moving neither
forward nor backward; then I began to turn my face
away from him, but towards whatever region of the
sky I looked, I saw him as before.”
Prophet: in Mecca
Preached his message and gathered a small group of
followers
Increasing opposition from the Meccan leaders
 Why?
◦ Violated customs (“Sufficient for us is what we found our fathers
doing.” Qur’an 3:104)
◦ Threatened their prestige and power
◦ Might threaten their economic benefits as guardians of the Ka‘ba?

Protected by his uncle, Abu Talib (who did not become a
Muslim).
◦ Some his followers who lacked such protection were persecuted.
◦ Some go to Ethiopia.

Tempted to compromise, according to some accounts.
◦ “Satanic verses”

His clan (Banu Hashim) was boycotted for
2 to 3 years.

A year of promise and despair
◦ Death of Abu Talib and Khadija.
◦ Seeking a new base: failed journey to al-Ta’if
◦ Night Journey to Jerusalem and Heaven (Isrā’
and Mi‘rāj)
Hijra
Leading tribes of Yathrib are seriously quarrelling: need a
mediator.
First pact of Aqaba. (at the time of hajj): a delegation swore
allegiance to Muhammad but did not commit to fight.
Second pact of Aqaba. Invited him to Yathrib, vowed to
defend him.
Hijra June 20, 622 (Watt: arrived Madina 4 September 622)
Expeditions and battles (outside Medina,
after Hijra)
Reasons for fighting
 Must eventually defeat the Meccans, or be
destroyed by them.
 To impress waverers in Medina and
surrounding tribes with his strength
 Booty to support muhājirūn (many had
lost their possessions by making hijra)
 Can the expeditions/battles be considered
“defensive”?
Main expeditions and battles
Early expeditions / raids (c 623 = 2 H)
 Expedition to Nakhla; first violence; violation
of sacred month (but Qur’an 2:217)
 Battle of Badr (624) Victory (Qur’an 3:13)
(expulsion of Banu Qaynuqa‘)
 Battle of Uhud. (625) Defeat, enemies do/can
not follow up. (Qur’an 3:121) (later,
expulsion of Banu al-Nadir)
 Battle of the Trench. (627) Stand off,
enemies fail (execution/enslavement of Banu
Qurayza)
 Treaty of Hudaybiyya. (628)
Main expeditions and battles (ctd.)
Various expeditions against Bedouin tribes and
Khaybar (Jewish settlement, 628), to Mu’ta
(Syria 629),
 Muslims perform Hajj under truce (629)
 Mecca capitulates to Muhammad. (630, Jan)

◦ Very few casualties; general amnesty.
◦ Ka‘ba cleansed of idols.




Battle of Hunayn, Bedouin confederacy defeated
(Qur’an 9:25-6) (630, Feb)
Expedition to Tabuk (Oct.-Dec. 630; Qur’an 9:818, 120)
Year of deputations (630-1)
Final proscription of idolatry (631; Qur’an 9:113)
Gradual establishment of Muhammad’s
position within Medina (and then beyond)


Groups in relation to Muhammad and Islam.
Believers: Muhajirun / Ansar



Pact (or Constitution) of Medina
Jews and change of Qibla (624?)
Successes in battles strengthen his position in
Medina and with surrounding tribes
Elimination of main Jewish tribes after the
battles.

◦ “Hypocrites” or luke-warm Muslims (munāfiqūn)
◦ Idolaters (mushriqūn)
◦ Jews
◦ Weakens their allies

Muhammad probably largely in charge by 628.

Capitulation of Mecca and cleansing of Ka‘ba.
Say, Truth has come and falsehood has vanished,
Falsehood is always vanishing. (Qur’an 17:81)

Continued revelation of the Qur’an and
development of the doctrines and practices of
the umma throughout the Medinan period,
e.g.
◦ Shura (Qur’an 3:159; 42:38)

Farewell Hajj. (632). Rituals established.
When comes the help of God, and victory,
And you see the people entering God’s religion in
droves,
Then sing the praise of God and ask His forgiveness,
For He is ever forgiving. (Qur’an 110)
Last verse of the Qur’an
Today I have completed (or perfected) your
religion
And completed my blessing upon you
And approved Islam as your religion.
(Qur’an 3:3)

Death of Muhammad (632)
Muhammad is but a messenger.
The messengers before him passed away.
When he dies or is killed, will you turn
back? (Qur’an 3:144)

Family man
Partial list of wives
 Khadija bint Khuwaylid (married 595, aged 40)
◦ Wealthy, widow, major moral support to Muhammad
◦ Muhammad had no other wife before she died
◦ Four daughters and three sons by Muhammad.
 Fatima: the only child of Muhammad to have children.
Married Ali.

‘A’ishah bint Abi Bakr, (married 623, aged 9).
◦ Muhammad’s favorite wife;
◦ One motive was to cement the alliance with Abu Bakr.
◦ Active in the politics of the early community after
Muhammad’s death
◦ Important transmitter of hadith,
◦ Did not get on well with Ali and Fatima
◦ Accusation of Adultery; exonerated by God (Qur’an
24:11-20)
Partial list of wives (ctd)

Hafsah bint ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab, (married
625, aged 18).
◦ Widow of a Muslim killed at Badr;
◦ Daughter of close companion of Muhammad.
◦ Said to have played a role in the transmission of
the text of the Qur’an.

Zaynab bint ‘Jahsh, (married 627, aged 38).
◦ Cousin of Muhammad
◦ Married (unhappily) his former slave and adopted
son Zayd,
◦ Divorced from Zayd and married to Muhammad
(Qur’an 33:38).
◦ Legal effect of prohibiting adoption
Partial list of wives (ctd)

Mariyah the Copt, (628, concubine)
◦ Presented to Muhammad by the governor of Egypt,
◦ Bore a son, who died young

Umm Habiba bint Abi Sufyan, 628, aged 35.
◦ Early convert
◦ Widow who had gone to Ethiopia with her first
husband.

Safiya bint Huyyay, (628, aged 17).
◦ Jewish,
◦ Captured in a raid on the Jewish settlement at
Kaybar.
◦ Apparently later became Muslim
Some points:

Economic or political factors played important roles in
the marriages
◦ Khadija’s wealth
◦ Some needed support (e.g. Umm Habiba)
◦ Political alliances (e.g ‘A’isha, Hafsa)

Many of Muhammad’s wives were quite strong
characters:
◦ E.g. Khadija, ‘A’isha et al.
◦ Their activities prompt Muhammad to call for obedience or
divorce (Qur’an 33:28-31)

Distinctive position
◦ Models: “You are not like other women” (Qur’an 33:32-4)
◦ Seclusion and veiling (Qur’an 33:33, 53, 59)
◦ “Mothers of the believers”