Download Memory - Solon City Schools

Memory
•Memory - the persistence of
learning over time through the
storage and retrieval of
information.
•Example – Flashbulb Memory of 9/11
The Memory Process
Three step process….
1. Encoding: The processing
of information into the
memory system.
2. Storage: The retention of
encoded material over
time.
3. Retrieval: The process of
getting the information
out of memory storage.
Information Processing Model
of Memory
• Simplified Memory
Model
• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval
Atkinson and Shiffin’s 3 Step
Model of Memory
Sensory memory – brief recording of sensory information
Short-term memory – memory that holds few items briefly before
info is forgotten
Long –term memory – relatively permanent and limitless storage of
memory.
Sensory Memory
• A split second
holding tank for ALL
sensory information.
• Sperling’s research
on Iconic Memory
• Echoic Memory
Short Term Memory
• The stuff we encode
from the sensory goes
to STM.
• Events are encoded
visually, acoustically or
semantically.
• Holds about 7 (plus or
minus 2) items for
about 20 seconds.
• We recall digits
better than letters.
Short Term Memory Activity
Long Term Memory
• Unlimited
storehouse of
information.
• Examples:
Modified Atkinson – Shiffrin
(3 Stage) Model
• Working Memory –
conscious, active
processing of auditory
and visual-spatial info.
and info from long term
memory
• Our memory sketchpad
Modified Three-stage Model of
Memory
Connectionism Model of
Memory
• Memory from activation of networks of interrelated
concepts
• the memory is stored in the activation pattern
• retrieval of the memory is a reconstruction based on
each of the elements of the pattern
How We Encode
2 Ways to Encode
1. Automatically Processing
– Automatic
– Parallel
2. Effortful processing
– Rehearsal
Encoding - Automatic Processing
Automatic Processing - unconscious encoding
of incidental information
– Examples: Unintentionally encoding…and later remembering
– Time –
– Space –
– Frequency –
– well learned info –
• Parallel Processing – processing of many
things simultaneously
Encoding – Effortful
Processing
1. Effortful Processing –
encoding that requires
conscious effort and
attention
• Rehearsal – conscious
repetition of info to
encode it for storage
Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting
Curve
• Ebbinghaus Curve The amount
remembered
depends on the time
spent learning
• Overlearning –
additional rehearsal
after we learn
material increases
retention
Effortful Processing
• Spacing effect – distributed
study is better long-term recall
than massed study (cramming)
– DO NOT CRAM!!!!!!!!!!!!
• Testing effect – repeated
quizzing or testing improves
retention
Take out a piece of paper and name all the
Presidents…
Encoding Information
• Serial Positioning Effect – we
tend to remember the first
and last items on a list
– Primacy Effect – remember
items at the beginning of a list
– Recency Effect – remembering
items at the end of a list (most
recent
• Von Rostorff effect –
remembering unique items on a
list
Encoding Exercise
What We Encode…
• Visual Encoding: the
encoding of picture
images.
• Acoustic Encoding:
the encoding of sound,
especially the sounds
of words.
• Semantic Encoding:
the encoding of
meaning.
Encoding Exercise
Visual Encoding
– Imagery – visual images help us remember
concrete words (aided by semantic encoding
– Rosy Retrospection – recalling high points,
forgetting the worst
– Mnemonic Devices – memory aids that use visual
images and organizational devices
• Peg word system – memorizing a jingle
• Chunking - Organizing items into familiar, manageable
units.
– Hierarchies – broad concepts divided and
subdivided into narrower concepts and facts
Acoustic and Semantic Encoding
Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of
sound, especially the sounds of words.
Semantic Encoding: the encoding of
meaning.
Storage
Types of Memory
1.Sensory Memory
2.Working Memory
3.Long-Term Memory
Sensory Memory
• Sperling’s memory experiment
– Momentary photographic memory
• Iconic memory – photographic or picture
image memory lasting no more than a few
tenths of a second
– Example:
• Echoic memory – auditory memory lasting
no more than a 3-4 seconds (mind’s echo
chamber)
– Example:
Working/Short-Term Memory
• Duration – Brief (30 sec or less)
• Capacity – Limited
• The list of magic sevens
Long-Term Memory
• Duration – unlimited
• Capacity - unlimited
Types of Long-Term Memory
Implicit Memories
• Procedural Memories
– without conscious
recall
– Processed by
cerebellum and other
brain areas
• Conditioned Memories
– memories from
conditioned learning
Explicit Memories
• Explicit Memories – memories of
facts and experiences, consciously
recalled
 Episodic Memories - memories of
specific events, situations, and
experiences
 Semantic Memories – memory of words,
meanings, and understandings
Storing Memories
Long Term-Potentiation
• long-lasting enhancement in
signal transmission between two
neurons that results from
stimulating them synchronously.
• Neurons that fire together wire
together…creating a memory.
• Memory boosting drugs
– CREB
– Glutamate – enhances synaptic
communication (LTP)
The Context Matters!!!
• Flashbulb Memories – clear
moment of a emotionally
significant event
• Mood Congruent Memory –
recalling memories consistent
with current mood
• State Dependent Memory –
learning that takes place in one
situation or "state" is generally
better remembered later in a
similar situation or state
Amnesia
• Amnesia – loss of memory
– Retrograde Amnesia –
inability to remember past
events
– Anterograde Amnesia –
inability to create new
memories
• Loss of Explicit Memory but not
Implicit memories
Retrieval
Recall
• you must retrieve the
information from your
memory
Recognition
• you must identify the
target from possible
targets
Retrieval
• Relearning – learning material for
the second time, saves time.
• Retrieval Cues – anchor points
used to access target info for
retrieval later
• Priming – unconscious activation of
associations in memory
Forgetting
• Schacter’s sevens sins of memory
– Sins of Forgetting
• Absent-mindedness
• Transience
• Blocking
– Sins of distortion
• Misattribution
• Suggestibility
• Bias
– Sin of intrusion
• persistence
Encoding Failure
Storage Decay
Ebbinghaus Curve
Retrieval Failure
Forgetting
• Retroactive Interference:
new information blocks out
old information.
• Proactive Interference:
old information blocks out
new information.
Retrieval Failure
• Repression – (Freud’s
Psychoanalytic Theory)
• A defense mechanism that
banishes painful memories
from consciousness to
minimize anxiety
Constructive Memory
• Constructed memory - a created
memory, altered when encoded
or retrieved.
– Misinformation effect
– Imagination effect
– Source amnesia
Constructive Memory
• Elizabeth Loftus
• Misinformation Effect –
incorporating misleading info into
a memory
• Imagination Effect – imagining
nonexistent actions and events
can create false memories
• Source Amnesia – retaining the
memory of an event, but not the
source
Repressed or Constructed
Memories of Abuse?
• Areas of agreement
– Sexual abuse happens
– Injustice happens
– Forgetting happens
– Recovered memories are incomplete
– Memories before 3 years are unreliable
– Hypnotic memories are unreliable
– Memories can be emotionally upsetting
Improving Memory Techniques
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Study repeatedly
Make the material meaningful
Activate retrieval cues
Use mnemonic devices
Minimize interference
Sleep more
Test your own knowledge, both to
rehearse it and to help determine what
you do not yet know