Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Boot Camp 2/24/04 Sea Biscuit Racing Heart? Intelligent Salivary Glands The role of salivation on digestion Saliva production = automatic, no conscious control or learning – Unconditioned Reflex Consistent within species But, learned from experience in lab to expect food following signals – Conditioned Reflex Extremely variable How it all began… Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) = FOOD Unconditioned Response (UCR) = SALIVATION Conditioned Stimulus (CS) = FOOTSTEPS Conditioned Response (CR) = SALIVATION 3 Simple Steps UCS NS + UCS 1. 2. • 3. UCR UCR REPEAT, REPEAT, REPEAT CS CR Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – Unconditioned Response (UCR) – Automatic response Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – Reflex-like, non-learned, automatically causes response Previously neutral, repeatedly precedes US Conditioned Response (CR) – Transferred: now associated with CS Pavlov ring a bell? salivation (UCR) 1. Food (UCS) 2. Metronome (NS) + Food (UCS) salivation (UCR) REPEAT * 5-20 times 3. Metronome (CS) AND: Vanilla odor + acid Rotating Object + food salivation (UCR) salivation salivation Key Points Can explain a wide range of behavior – Advertising, food aversion, phobias Focuses on reflexive behavior – – Not under voluntary control Any reflex can be conditioned to air NSinto eye) (puff of Eye blink—door bell Sexual arousal—strawberries HR increases– flashing blue light (romantic caresses) (sudden noise) Real Life Advertising (sexy images, music, celebs) Phobias, addiction Food Aversions Credit cards, Logos & spending Ranchers – – Coyotes & wolves killing sheep UCS = lithium chloride; UCR = nausea Health & well being? Reflexes & emotions Ader & Cohen (1985) Drug (cyclophosphamide) – Weakened immune system Saccharine H2O + Drug --- W.I.S – Repeated… Saccharine H2O --- W.I.S Chemotherapy (environmental cues– W.I.S) What about enhancing? – Smell of camphor, sherbet & adrenaline… But usually we buy, study, work… We “OPERATE” on the environment to produce an effect Voluntary, complex, goal-directed behaviors Any behavior that leads to a “satisfying state of affairs” is more likely to occur again; those that lead to an “annoying state of affairs” are less likely – Law of Effect Animal problem solving Thorndike’s Puzzle Box Hungry Cats in cage Trap door operated by lever Raw fish outside cage Sniff, scratch, push, dig… bang on lever Repeat… efficiency Thorndike (1911) Just like socialization Through rewards and punishment, parents train kids Learning how to produce desirable outcomes = adaptive Operant Conditioning Skinner Box Stimulus light Response bar/ pecking key – Dry food pellets, water Metal grid for electric shocks Recording instrument Reinforcement (instead of reward/ satisfaction) – Any stimulus that increases likelihood of response Punishment – Any stimulus that decreases likelihood Behaviors considered uniquely human can be learned by lowly creatures like rats and pigeons Not superstition! – Thinking, knowing, reasoning, belief Good luck charms? People presume connexn between behavior & reinforcing consequence Behavior must have been accidentally reinforced – Rolling dice certain way – good roll… 40% college athletes! Pigeons Non-contingent rewards Several days Highly motivated pigeons Do what pigeons do For a few minutes… every 15 seconds = pellets They became “superstitious” “One bird conditioned to turn counter clockwise, making 2-3 turns between reinforcements.” “Another thrust its head into corner of cage” “One developed a tossing response as if placing its head beneath an invisible bar and lifting it repeatedly” “Human bowler who has released a ball, but continues to behave as if he was controlling it by twisting and turning his arm…” – Rationally – no effect, food comes every 15 seconds “The bowler’s effect has no behavior on the ball, but the behavior of the ball has an effect on the bowler” Problem- must wait for behavior to reward… E.g. training dog to roll-over Shaping – – Reinforcing behaviors increasingly similar to desired behavior E.g. making me lecture from corner Extinction – – Without reinforcement, behavior fades (in C.C. repeat CS w/out US) More problems- not enough pellets! Partial Reinforcement – Coke Machine vs. Slot Machine – – Not EVERY response must be reinforced If don’t get rewarded… walk away? Strengthens later resistance to extinction 4 different schedules Vary time of interval Fixed-Interval Schedule 1. – Studying starts slow, increases @ midterms, trails off after, picks up @ finals Variable Interval Schedule 2. – Pop quizzes Vary # responses required Fixed-Ratio 1. – Administer reinforcement after a fixed number of responses Frequent flyer programs, payment based on fixed # products, CD clubs… Variable Ratio 2. – Reinforced after average # of responses Lotteries, radio call-ins, slot machines Punishment Strong, immediate, consistent & inescapable – 1. 2. 3. 4. Suppresses unwanted behaviors BUT Temporary inhibition (smoking) Replacement behavior (jail) “aversive” stimuli = rewarding? Negative emotions lead to retaliation Learning by Doing AND by SEEING Don’t we sometimes learn without direct experience? Think about 1st time danced, drove a car, programmed a VCR – Learn by watching and imitating others – Observational Learning Bandura’s (1960) Bobo Doll Study Expose children to adult models that are aggressive vs. nonaggressive – 36 boys & 36 girls 3-6 yrs old 3 groups – Will they imitate the aggressive behavior? Control, aggressive, non-aggressive All in playroom, adult joins game, highly interesting activities Tinker Toys, Mallet & Bobo Doll Aggressive condition – – – Laid bobo on side Sat on it, punched it, struck it w/ mallet, kicked it about room “sock him in the nose; hit him down, throw him in the air; kick him; Pow!” Test After 10 minutes… Frustrated children New play room with – – – – – Tea set, crayons, farm animals, dolls Dart guns, mallet, Bobo Doll Physical aggression Verbal aggression Non-Imitative aggression Results Instances of imitative physical aggression – – Verbal aggression – – 38.2- male 12.7 females Boys -17 times Girls- 15.7 times Never with nonaggressive models or control Observational Learning is not simple Attention – Retention – Memorable, rehearsed Reproduction – To behavior and consequences Motor ability Motivation – Expectations for reinforcement Good Models Attractive High Status Similar to selves LEARNED behavior Expectations about alcohol as “magic elixir” – – – – – Increase social skills Sexual pleasure Confidence Power Aggression LEARNED early in life: drinking is fun Can we separate the learned beliefs from pharmacological effects? Pretending to be drunk TOLD TONIC ALCOHOL CONTROL EXPECTANCY EFFECTS TRUE PHYSIO EFFECTS EXPECTANCY + PHYSIO TONIC GIVEN ALCOHOL TOLD TONIC TONIC GIVEN ALCOHOL CONTROL Impairs motor & information processes, improves mood ALCOHOL Disinhibition of social behaviors (aggression, sexual arousal) EXPECTANCY + PHYSIO Persisted Learning: Memory Lecture 9 2/25/04 Memento Inspired by the condition of anterograde amnesia that he learned about in a Georgetown psychology class, Nolan wrote a short story entitled “Memento Mori” about a man with this illness trying to deal with a traumatic event in his past. H.M., 8/23/53 Epileptic Seizures Bilateral medial temporal lobe removal – Including hippocampus IQ, personality, perceptual abilities Memory prior to surgery = ok ** Severe ANTEROGRADE amnesia – – Every new moment = new & fresh Any delay between presentation & recall = impaired H.M. continued Doesn’t know where he lives, who cares for him, what he ate at his last meal, what year it is, who the president is, how old he is… In 1982, failed to recognize picture of himself on 40th birthday BUT, can learn some new things and not know it – – Mirror-drawing task Classical conditioning* What did we learn… Structures that store are separate from mechanisms that encode Declarative and Procedural memory are distinct – – D: conscious knowledge of facts/ events P: implicit memory for motor skills/behaviors Memory as information processor • Encode, store & retrieve Overview Sensory Memory Registers incoming information; leaves trace on NS for split second Short term memory We pay attention to and encode important/ novel stimuli Long term memory If rehearsed (stare) long enough, or deemed important, encoded for long-term storage & can be retrieved The Sensory Register: George Sperling Testing for Iconic Memory P’s recalled more letters when signaled to recall only one row compared to trying to recall all the letters Short-term Memory: Capacity Chunking iujhgyegdbnjkofiutyhs Iuj hgy egd bnj kof iut Short-term Memory: Duration Can hold things for ~20 seconds – – Rapidly decays UNLESS actively rehearsed E.g. 1hr per day X 3-4 weeks Digit span from 7 to 80 Interference – Example (consonants & counting) Short-term Memory: Function Working memory – – – ACTIVE Access to senses AND LTM “inner voice” Serial Position Curve – – Primacy Recency AND Long-Term Memory Elaborative Rehearsal – – – – – Tree LION Shoe APPLE Turquoise Is the word printed in capital letters? Does the word rhyme with ____? What does the word mean? More thought = Better memory Are any of these self-descriptive? Number 1-20 Circle the numbers of self-descriptive adjectives Self-reference effect Retrieval superiority for info related to selfschema – REMINDER: Password Deeper processing of self-relevant terms Schema = useful framework to help us perceive, organize, process and use information LTM: Access “Mild torment, something like the brink of a sneeze” Definitions, line drawings, odors, faces Occur ~1/wk, increase w/age Words related in spelling, then meaning First letter guessed 50-71% time Number of syllables 80% time ~40-666% resolved after 1 minute Quick note: Storage*** Long Term Memory: access Retrieval cues – Encoding specificity Any stimulus encoded with experience can later trigger it When learn & retrieve in same context… Divers – Beach vs 15ft under Cafeteria Noise Scent of Chocolate Russian/ English bilinguals State-dependent memory On alcoholics and their keys… Marijuana & Alcohol – – NOTE: BEST SOBER ON BOTH – Tested sober vs. high Memory best when tested in same state in which studied Worst performance by intoxicated then sober! Internal state = retrieval cue – Emotions & moods… Implicit Memory Amnesics may know more than they think… – Memory during amnesia “cancer” “you will not feel any pain” “beached whale” In everyday life Implicit memory… Déjà vu – The false-fame effect – Names presented only once, familiarity but no real memory, assume person is famous Eyewitness transference – A sense of familiarity but no real memory Face is familiar, but situation in which they remembering seeing face is incorrect Unintentional plagiarism – Take credit for someone else’s ideas without awareness Autobiographical Memory Recollections of personal experiences and observations – Most vivid for times of transition In college, memories from the beginning of the first year and end of the last year. Autobiographical Memory Flashbulb Memories – Childhood Amnesia – Highly vivid and enduring memories, typically for events that are dramatic and emotional The inability of most people to recall events from before the age of three or four Hindsight Bias – The tendency to think after an event that one knew in advance what was going to happen How to Improve Memory Mnemonics Increase Practice Time Increase the Depth of Processing Hierarchical Organization Method of Loci Peg-Word Method Minimize Interference Utilize Context Effects Imagery & Mnemonics One is a bun Two is a shoe Three is a tree Four is a door Five is a hive Six is sticks Seven is heaven Eight is a gate Nine is a line Ten is a hen Memory II: Not remembering 3/1/04 Mr. Short Term Memory Think H.M. – Bilateral medial temporal lobe resection – Anterograde amnesia – New info goes in one ear, out the next Storing is different from encoding Knows name, hometown, but… Plan: Errors in Memory Sins of forgetting, distortion, and suggestibility (false memory) Ways to improve memory How’s your memory? 7 Sins of (normal) Memory Absentmindedness Transience Blocking Misattribution Suggestibility Bias Persistence Can occur at any stage – Encoding – Storage – Retrieval Which is the real deal? Tatiana Cooley “I’m incredibly absentminded… I live by post-its” 99 photos w/names – – – 15 minutes Same photos, different order 85 correct! Also: strings of 4,000 numbers, 500 words, lines of poetry and deck of cards “Visualization & association” The Name Game http://www.pbs.org/saf/1102/features/name_g ame.htm Absentmindedness Much of what we sense, we never notice – Encoding failures – – Change blindness (even while in our presence) Lack of attention OR, Don’t process well enough for consolidation Ineffective encoding – Imagine reading aloud to yourself while distracted… Consolidation Changes in strength of neural connxns Originally, Lashley & “Engram” – Rats in maze, more area removed, worse memory No specific location Equipotentiality Wrong, wrong, wrong Specialization: “Bark” sound vs. “Dog” picture Structure: Black-capped chickadees with vs. Monkeys w/out. Neurochem– epinephrine (stress) & glucose – – – 22 seniors: Country Time vs. Crystal Light 36 teenagers: normally -8%, unless glucose Breakfast before tests… Transience: decay over time Competing information displaces information attempting to retrieve Interference – Sleep study, 1924: 1, 2, 4, 8 hours – – Not as much decay as interference, inhibition, obliteration of old by new Proactive- already known intf’s with new Retroactive- new material intf’s with old Stanford President: fish & names Memory as Reconstructive Filling in missing pieces Disadvantages of schemas – – – Office Study Confidence & accuracy NOT well correlated (sleep list, 2 voices, remember vs. know) Memories for early events = reconstructions Misinformation Effect False/ misleading information given after eyewitness event incorporated into account of event Loftus & Palmer (1974) – How fast was the car going when it… – Contacted- 31.8 Smashed- 40.8 Did you see any broken glass… Hit- 14% Smashed- 32% Experiment 1 Film of 5-car chain-reaction accident – Accident = 4 seconds Driver runs stop sign into oncoming traffic 10 questions How fast was Car A going when it ran the stop sign? – How fast was Car A going when it turned right? 10. Did you see a stop sign for Car A? (53% vs. 35% – Experiment 2 After short video: – – How fast was white car going when it passed the barn while traveling along the country road? How fast was the white car going while traveling along the country road? 1 week later – – Did you see a barn? 17% vs. 2% said “Yes” Experiment 3 Did you see a truck in the beginning of the film? 0% At the beginning of the film, was the truck parked beside the car? 22% ACCURACY is VERY important Tell me about the time you got a hand caught in a mousetrap and had to have the trap removed at the hospital? Commercial… “My brother Colin was trying to get Blowtorch from me and I wouldn’t let him take it from me, so he pushed me into the wood pile where the mouse trap was. And then my finger got caught in it. And then we went to the hospital, and my mommy , daddy and Colin drove me there, to the hospital in our can, because it was far away, and the doctor put a bandage on this finger” False Memory Implantation Present 4 childhood events 3 provided by parents as true – 1 created by experimenter, verified as false Describe all 4 events 29% adults recall being lost in mall 20-30% hospitalized with ear infection, spilling punch at wedding, evacuating store with activated sprinklers, releasing parking brake & rolling into object Case study* * 164 Remembered feeling frightened Described store was lost in Recalled scolding when found Remembered looks of man who found him (blue flannel, glasses, old, bald) Clarity rated at top of scale Chose true experience as false Application Eyewitness Testimony (see clip) How to improve your memory How to Improve Memory: Mnemonics Increase Practice Time – – Increase the Depth of Processing – More time spent studying, better Remember more from 4- 2hrs than 1-8hr Think actively and deeply (how is it linked? Ask, think ,talk) Hierarchical Organization – Outline: Broad categories, subcategories How to Improve Memory: Mnemonics Method of Loci – Peg-Word Method – List of words = “pegs”; Hang items on pegs; imagine interaction Minimize Interference – Mentally place in familiar locations. Memorize familiar route, then place visual images. Study before sleeping; review all material right before exam Utilize Context Effects – Setting, mood, time, smell, etc. Imagery & Mnemonics One is a bun Two is a shoe Three is a tree Four is a door Five is a hive Six is sticks Seven is heaven Eight is a gate Nine is a line Ten is a hen PTSD Persistence of unwanted memories Film clip Altered Consciousness Lecture 11 3/03/04 Sleep Are you morning person (lark) or an evening person (owl)? People perform better during “preferred” time Larks > owls take morning classes and… Memory tests at 9am, 2pm, & 8pm… larks suffered Older people tend to be high in ‘morningness’; younger in ‘eveningness’ Your internal clock is individually set – Circadian rhythm= cycle occurs every 24hrs BP, temp, K+, hormones, pulse, etc. Is it endogenous or light dependent? Stefania Follini, Italian Interior designer Volunteered, 1989 for 4 months 20 x 12 ft windowless room, cave, NM Monitored by hidden cameras & microphones Days = 25 to 40hrs; sleep = 14-22hrs Stopped menstruating, ate less, lost 17lbs 131 days = 2 months “Free-Running Environments” Most people tend toward 25hr cycles More common source of disruption… – – Preventing jet lag Shining lights on back of knees, shifts clock to regulate sleep-wake cycle Interplay between environment & hypothalamus Sleep Microsleeps – 56% long haul truck drivers – http://www.livejournal.com/users/thefowle/221510.html – ~ 200,000 traffic accidents a year are sleep related Simulated car experiment – Drive 1 hour; break 30 mins. Brief naps & coffee How to Stay Awake When Driving Sleep Sorority: alpha, theta, delta Presleep Stages 1-4 – – You’re getting drowsy… Hypnagogic state- flashes of color, light, “fall” Slower HR, Eye movement, muscles, breath… – – Tone register– 95% awake, 47% stage 1, 3% stage 2 Stage 3 &4 = “out like a light” Bed-wetting & sleep walking 1: 10min; 2: 20min; 3 & 4: 30 mins After an hour… Rather than maintain your deep sleep, cycle back to 3, then 2, then… REM High frequency beta waves, activity, bloodflow, breath, pulse, genital arousal Complete paralysis – Internally active, externally immobile Dreaming of a ping-pong match? Sleep and Dreams Stages of Sleep A Typical Night’s Sleep Dreaming When awakened in NREM, dreaming 50% of time; – – Adaptive: 50% newborn; 30% 6mos.; 25% 2yrs As night wares, more time spent in REM – REM- 80% More visual, vivid, detailed, story-like Why we feel need to finish dreams when alarm sounds Rebound effect when deprived Need = powerful & irresistible WHY? DJ Tripp – – – 200 hours on-air fundraising Day 5: slurred speech, hallucinations, paranoia 13 hours, recovered Randy Gardner – – 264 hours (11 days) Thinking fragmented, speech slurred, concentration & memory lapses, hallucinations “Mind over matter” Restoration Theory – – Recharging Battery for cognitive, physical, emotional demands Rats after 2-3 weeks Metabolism, temp, food intake, weight loss, immune system… Evolutionary – Conserve energy, minimize exposure to predators We couldn’t search for food well at night or protect ourselves form nocturnal predators Evolutionary Theory Cross-species Comparisons of Daily Hours of Sleep Dreams are adaptive Everyone dreams, WITHOUT exception, several times a night – Electrochemical events (Brainstem & Cortex) Longer REM, more words used to describe dream & more elaborate story What do we dream about? 1. 2. 3. Dream Content Falling Being chased or attacked Repeatedly trying, but failing to do something Also: flying, unprepared or late for big event, rejected, and… being naked in public 64% sadness, anger, fear 18% happy or exciting 29% in color Other fun facts… 68% report having a recurring dream 28% report dying in a dream 45% dream of celebrities Westerners assume, when analyzed, tell us something about past, present, future… Dreams reflect cultural Beliefs Messages sent from evil spirits Messages sent by the Gods One’s soul leaves body, enters another world Kurds & Zulus: dreaming of adulterous affair is an offense – If gift received, must compensate when awake What are the influences Everyday concerns 1. • Finances, new relationships, exam anxiety, etc. External stimuli 2. • • Ever incorporated alarm in your dream? Slumber parties- “pinky trick” Dement, 1992: 42% waterfalls, rain, leaking roofs, swimming, etc. Yourself (Lucid Dreaming) 3. • ‘Half in, half out’, aware while dreaming What do they tell us? Freud: The Interpretation of Dreams, 1900 – – – Unconsciously motivated to satisfy sexual and aggressive urges Too threatening to express or recognize Psychological defense mechanism BUT, during sleep, defense is down! Would be shattering to come face-to-face w/ deepest, darkest urges… We construct dreams that express fulfillment in ways too confusing to recognize Activation-Synthesis Theory Random neural signals firing in brainstem spread to cortex – Drawing on past experiences, brain creates images and stories to make sense of randomness – – Sensory neurons = color, clarity, brightness, etc. Motor neurons = flying, climbing, falling, etc – Why they make no sense: Limbic, not frontal! Sleep disturbances 30% population complains of insomnia People can’t pinpoint the “moment of sleep” Try this tonight: – Spoon in hand over plate Tips to Avoid Insomnia Do not nap during the day. Avoid alcohol, caffeine, and cigarettes within five hours of bedtime. Avoid exercise within two hours of bedtime. Keep a rigid schedule. If awake and anxious, leave bed and return when sleepy. Hypersomnia 5% complain of sleeping too much E.g. Narcolepsy – Sudden, irresistible attack of drowsiness, w/out warning playing b-ball, eating, conversing, having sex Lasts 5-30 mins Right to REM Parasomnia Sleep apnea affects 4% of Americans – – Fall asleep normally… Can occur up to 400 times per night Nightmares – – – Only dangerous for RBD! Skeletal muscles aren’t paralyzed Have mobility to act on nightmares 75% have injured selves; 44% partners Clearly brain is active during sleep Night Terrors – B/C NREM, don’t know source of bloodcurling scream Sleepwalking – Not acting out dreams, occurs during deep, slowwave sleep; seldom recall travels Sometimes… “sleepsex” Can we control what’s in spotlight of consciousness? Lucid dreamers can sometimes control dreams… Meditators thought could discipline the mind… But, mind often wanders, we daydream, distracted when trying to concentrate – Sometimes the harder you try to control your own thoughts… Disregard inadmissible testimony, chocolate cake in fridge, trying not to laugh, noticing how long it takes to fall asleep… For the next 2 minutes… Try not to think of a white bear Consciousness and Control Ironic Processes – The harder ones tries to control a thought or behavior, the less likely one is to succeed, especially if distracted, tired, or under stress. For the next 2 minutes… Go ahead and think of a white bear Rebound Effect GROUP PHASE 2 Rings PHASE 3 Rings Experimental 6 16 Control --- 11 Phase 1: 5min Verbalization. Phase 2: Don’t think of White Bear (experimental only) Phase 3: Think about White Bear Trying to control our minds Don’t think of a white bear Don’t swing the pendulum on the forbidden axis Don’t eat chocolate "They mentioned a white bear about once a minute," “Then, if I asked them to think about anything at all, they would mention white bears more often than if I had initially asked them to think about white bears on purpose.“ Irony: Easy to change our mind, get new ideas, see new perspective, but when we try NOT to think about something… Motivation: What directs and energizes your behavior? Lecture 12 3/8/04 The Pyramid of Human Motivation Self Actualization Need to live up to one’s fullest and unique potential Happy, absorbed, capable of greatness “Think about the most wonderful experiences of your life; happiest moments, ecstatic moments, moments of rapture, perhaps from being in love, or from listening to music, or suddenly being hit by a book or a painting or some great creative moment.” Peak Experiences Open to new experiences, spontaneous, playful, loving, creative, self-accepting, energetic… FLOW: An activity totally absorbs one’s focus Forget normal worries & self-consciousness Lose track of time Feel confident & clear-headed Emerge with sense of satisfaction & growth Esteem Needs = Power & Achievement – accomplish difficult tasks, outperform others, and excel – acquire prestige and influence over other people Motive Arousal: Typical Stories Written Establish, maintain, further relationships Energy, attention, stimulation, information & emotional support When? – Stress, fear, embarrassment??? HIGH: “These shocks will hurt…In research of this sort, if we’re to learn anything at all that will really help humanity, it’s necessary that our shocks be intense” LOW: “I assure you that what you will feel will not in any way be painful. It will resemble a tickle or a tingle more than anything unpleasant” “10 minute delay” Do you want to wait: alone, w/ others, no preference? Do we always want to be with others? Not just anyone will do – P’s preferred to be alone than w/ students not in study Stress doesn’t always motivate affiliation… Embarrassment: Sucking on large nipples and pacifiers… – P’s preferred to be alone than with others Naturalistic study: waiting for open heart surgery – Prefer post-operative than pre-operative room-mate “We won! They lost!” Students wear more university-affiliated apparel after varsity football wins Conducting a survey of student knowledge of campus issues… – – – Can you tell me the outcome of that game? Win: 32% Loss: 18% One step further… Human sexual feelings and behaviors are powerful motivational forces Evolutionary Psychology: an explanation Gender differences in mate preference are a product of natural selection – Favored mating behaviors that promote the conception, birth and survival of offspring Men & women attracted to different characteristics and have different strategies Ensuring reproductive success Men Women Possibility to father unlimited # of children Careful selection of mate with resources for wellbeing Rely on external cues like attractiveness to serve as guide for youth, & good health Value commitment, health, ambition, financial security The dating marketplace: in 37 countries (N = 10,047) Men’s values Physical attractiveness “good looks” Being older than spouse Low hip to waist ratio Women’s values Socioeconomic status “good financial prospects” “ambition and industriousness” Being younger than spouse Dev Singh Video Big Misconception Only thing that defines body = weight – SHAPE is not captured Mind is designed to look for health based on LOCATION of fat, not just Fat vs. Skinny 1991 Singh developed series of figures from .7 to 1.0 Ideal Body Image Which image is ideal for your sex? Which comes closest to your own body? Sex differences in perceptions of desirable body shape Another problem with dieting: The “what the hell effect”