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MEMORY CHAPTER 7
 Attention: Alert focusing on material to be retained.
Learning Curve: a learning process that is plotted out visually
using graphs
A gradual upward slope representing increased retention of
material as the result of learning.
MEMORY
*is the process by which
we recollect prior
experiences, info., &
skills learned in the
past.
*the process by which
living organisms
encode, store, &
retrieve info.
TWO KINDS OF MEMORY
1.)Explicit / Declarative Memories
*clearly stated or explained
*they are conscious memories of
facts (specific info.) we actively
try to remember
*this info. may be autobiographical
Ex. What you did in college
c.) Super Auto-biological
*Video clip—Jill Price
http://www.youtube.com/watch
?v=aAbQvmf0YOQ
2 Kinds
a.) Semantic
*General knowledge of the
world: (Facts, words, formulas, “Flashbulb Memory”
concepts—most of what you say *the event is so intense
you know
(emotional) we pay close
EX. Things you learn in class
attention to it!
*they can be positive or negative
b.) Episodic
*Memory of a specific event
EXAMPLES--
Implicit (Non-declarative /
Procedural Memories)
*opposite of explicit memories
*not clearly stated
*memories of practiced skills (motor
& cognitive) and how to perform
them, learned habits
*it involves a series of steps that are
difficult to describe
*once learned, it usually stays w/ u
for many years or a lifetime
EXAMPLES--
“Don’t let me go
Daddy”
This book is
awesome!!
3 Major Processes of Memory
1.) Encoding
*the translation of information
into a form in which it can be
used
*the process of acquiring &
entering info. into memory
*we receive info. thru our senses
Types of Codes
Visual
*forming a mental picture of
info. in your mind while u r
trying to remember it
Acoustic
*trying to remember something by
repeating it over & over (using a
sequence of sounds)
Semantic (meaningful codes) Strategies
Maintenance / Rote Rehearsal
*”relating to meaning”—
represents info. in terms of *repeating info. to keep from
forgetting it
its meaning
*Surface processing
--doesn’t make info.
*by using these, u will
meaningful by connecting it
probably remember items
to past learning
more easily & for a longer
time
*a poor way to put something
into permanent storage
2.) Storage
*involves maintaining the
encoded info. over a period
of time so it can be retrieved
later
*the method of retrieval depends
on how the way u encoded the
*more effective than
info.
maintenance / rote rehearsal
Factors affecting retrieval
*Deep processing—relating
new info. you already know Context- Dependent Memory
to info. you already know well
*is retrieved more readily when
the person is in a similar
EX.
situation or environment as
Foreign Lang. teachers –Vocab.
when the info. was learned
*by personalizing the material
you r forming a relationship Ex. Hearing a song from “back in
the day” (Oh, what a night?)
w/ it
*the more “Colorful” the better
*Video Clip—Walter Payton
3.) Retrieval
Paytonhttp://www.youtube.com/w
*locating stored info. &
atch?v=oT79Be2KzEs
returning it to conscious
thought
Elaborative Rehearsal
State-Dependent Memory
*memory is better when
“Tip of the Tongue “ Phenomenon
people r in the same mood *occurs when info. is stored in LTM
or the same state of
but the retrieval cues fail to trigger
consciousness when the
the memory (bad encoding)
memory was acquired
Gordon Bower
*u feel u know something but you
*mood influences memory can’t verbalize it
(happy or sad moods)
EX. Lost keys due to drugs
or alcohol
Mood Congruence Effect
*when a person is happy—
think happy memories
*when a person is sad—
thinks sad memories
What is on a penny?
 Number scratch paper 1-5
 What direction does




Lincoln face?
What is above Lincoln’s
head?
What is below Lincoln?
What is to the left of
Lincoln?
What is to the right of
Lincoln?
Eyewitness Memory: they are very often inaccurate
 Descriptions fit a stereotypical image of a “bad guy”
 Under extreme stress, perception can be faulty
 Research shows eyewitness can distort the truth without
realizing it
Elizabeth Loftus / Daniel Bernstein
*misleading details can be planted into a person’s memory for an
event that actually occurred
*it’s possible to plant entirely false memories ( Loftus, 1995
Shopping Mall study)
*source confusion—the inability to recall the source of a piece of
information (u can’t know if the idea is reliable)
Eyewitness Memory Video Clips
*Shoping Mall
Studyhttp://www.youtube.com/watch
?v=NGLrNjaPmjA&feature=relatedLoftus (4:21)
*Ronald Cotton (Falsely Accused)
60 Minute video clip
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I4V6aoYuDcg
&feature=results_main&playnext=1&list=PL077
250E2C5A1E487 (13:07)
*Memento (Video Clip)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
v1nvvaWX4gk (1:52)
*My Cousin Vinny (Video Clips)
The Process of Memory
*is similar to creating a
document on a computer.
*ENCODING is the act of typing
the material into a word
document
*STORAGE is like saving the
document
*RETRIEVAL could be
compared to reopening the
document on the computer
Informational Processing Model of Memory (3 Stages)
Sensory Memory / Sensory Storage
* receives and holds environmental
information in its raw form for a brief
period of time (a few seconds)
2 Kinds
Iconic Memory: automatically holds
visual information for about a quarter of a
second or more (George Sperling)
*the rare ability to remember visual info. for
long periods of time
Photographic Memory
Eidetic Imagery (5% of kids)
--usually declines by adolescence
Video -Big Bang Theory (Eidetic Memory)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A4ugf
CjqlZ4
Echoic Memory: holds
auditory information for 1
to several seconds
Short-Term Memory (STM / Working Memory /
*a reason that information disappears
Working Brain)
from STM is Interference (when
*a process that can hold a limited
amount of information – an average
of 7 plus or minus 2 items – for a
limited amount of time – 2 to 30
seconds
*you can keep information longer in
the STM by using Maintenance
Rehearsal
new information enters STM and
overwrites, or pushes out,
information already there)
*Chunking: combining separate items
of information into a large unit, or
chunk, and then remembering
chunks of information rather than
individual items of information
*Limited Capacity – STM can
hold from 5 to 9 items
 George Miller (1956) Memory Span
Test
Ex. Social Security number and TX
(Business TX’s)
Primacy / Recency Effect
*we remember the first & last
items on a list, but tend to
forget the middle items
RECENCY EFFECT
Possible Explanation
PRIMACY EFFECT
Possible explanations
*first items may attract our
attention
*there is less competition or
interference from
surrounding items
*being the last item in a list
is not surrounded by other
items that compete w/ it
for attention
*we have a tendency to
remember the last thing
that we see
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
*The process of storing almost
unlimited amounts of
information over long periods of
time with the potential of
retrieving, or remembering, such
as information in the future
Memory as Reconstruction
*memories r not recorded & played
back like videos or movies. They r
reconstructed from bits & pieces of
our experience—we tend to
remember things in accordance w/ r
beliefs & needs
Schemas
*are established mental
representations of people, objects, &
events
*ways memories r organized
*they affect how we perceive things &
the way in which what we perceive is
stored in LTM
Loftus/Palmer Car Accident Study
p.200 (textbook)
Capacity and Permanency
*LTM has almost unlimited capacity
to store information
*Over time, the information can be
made permanent
Retrieval
*Depends on how information was
encoded and the amount of
interference from related
information
Forgetting & how it occurs in all 3 Stages
*is the “flip side” of memory
Sensory Memory
*info. encoded here decays
almost immediately unless u
pay attention to it & transfer it
into STM
Short-Term Memory
*it can disappear after only 10 -12
seconds unless you find a way
to transfer it into your LTM
*info. stored here is lost when it
is displaced, or crowded out,
by new info.
Video Clip—Finding Nemo
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ku
vF113uty4 (1 min, 31 sec)
Long-Term Memory
*the means of forgetting can
vary –a memory may decay
or it may not have been filed
correctly
Herman Ebbinghaus (1850- *after the 1st hr.—memory loss becomes
1909) German psychologist more gradual
*first to conduct scientific *further research—when info. learned
research on forgetting &
is meaningful & significant (when
nonsense syllables
there is a reason to learn & remember
it)—forgetting slows considerably
*acoustic coding & rote
repetition r used to
remember them. These
tasks play a part in the 3
basic memory tasks
Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting
Curve
*the ability to recall nonsense
syllables drops sharply
(about ½ the items )during
the 1st hour of learning
3 Basic Memory Tasks
1.) Recognition
*easiest of the memory tasks
2.) Recall
*the ability to bring back and
integrate many specific learned
*involves identifying objects or details
Ex. Essay tests, short answer, etc…
events that have been
encountered before
3.) Relearning
*the ability to pick the correct *learning something a 2nd time,
object or event from a list of
usually in less time than it was
choices
originally learned
*Ebbinghaus found that people were
able to relearn the list (of
Ex. Multiple choice, true/false,
nonsense syllables) more quickly
matching, etc…
than they had learned it the 1st
time
Location of Memories in the Brain
4) Transferring Memories
1.) STM: cortex (a thin layer of brain cells
Hippocampus
that covers the surface of the
forebrain)
*it transfers facts and personal events
Ex. Can hold a phone number long
from the STM into permanent LTM
enough in the STM to dial the number
2) LTM: Cortex
Ex. Learn words to a song
Elton John-Philadelpha Freedom-Bulls
Date
3) Emotional Memories
Amygdala
Ex. Hear a song – 1st love (you have a
romantic feeling—Eternal Flame-The
Bangels
Video Clip (Memento—Hippocampus damage—Sammy Jankis)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K9
lOnmnj0IY&feature=results_video&
playnext=1&list=PLCBCB4DB22E6D
A607
Different Kinds of Forgetting
1.) Decay
b.) Retroactive: a new memory
interferes w/ your remembering
*the fading away of a memory
an old memory
over time
Ex. I can’t remember my locker
2.) Interference
combination because I just got
*when stored info. is replaced,
disrupted, or distorted by new my gym locker combination
info.
*someone who learns to play chess
a.) Proactive: an older
may forget how to play checkers
memory interferes w/ your
remembering a new memory
Ex. Material learned earlier
(psychology) interferes with
learning new information
(sociology)
3.) Repression (Freud)
*pushing memories from r
consciousness b/c they r
extremely painful & unpleasant
4.) Amnesia
*Severe memory loss that may occur
after a blow or damage to the brain
(temporary or permanent), electric
shock, fatigue, after drug use, or
after some psychological stress
a.) Retrograde
*loss of memory of events that
occurred before the trauma
EX. Athletes / Concussions,
H.M. case study
Movie
b.) Anterograde
*loss of the ability to store new long-term
memories
*hippocampus damage
Amnesia Video Clips
*50 First Dates
Sue explains Lucy’s accident
2:30 – 5:35
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CZf
jsTQKt-k&feature=related
10 Sec Tom (1:20 – 3:35)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O3
GcvRe9G_w
Memento
* Video Clip (Memento—Hippocampus damage—Sammy Jankis)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K9lOn
mnj0IY&feature=results_video&playnext
=1&list=PLCBCB4DB22E6DA607
Overboard
21:00 – 26:45
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Vr
ylKAViXM&feature=related
Living without Memory
*Clive Wearing(1985 Brain Virus)
-lost episodic/autobiographical
memory
-near total retrograde amnesia &
total anterograde amnesia
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
Vwigmktix2Y&feature=related
c.) Infantile Amnesia
*the inability to remember
events that occurred during
one’s early years (before age 3)
*refers to episodic memories
Biological Factors
*hippocampus –doesn’t mature
until the age of 2-3
*myelination of nerve cells isn’t
complete for a few years
Cognitive Reason
*infants don’t make reliable use
of language to symbolize of
classify events
*ability to encode sensory input
is therefore limited
“I don’t remember this photo
shoot”
d.) Source
*not remembering where u heard
info. from
Ex. “They said it happens that way
b/c….”
Improving Memory
a.) Acronyms
1.)Drill & Practice
Ex. ROY G BIV
*repetition
2.)Relate to Existing Knowledge
*elaborative rehearsal
3.)Form Unusual Associations
*the more humorous or “colorful”
the better memory will be
4.)Mnemonic Devices
*memory aids that help organize
info.
*a catch word, formula, phrase, or
jingle that helps memory to be
(Colors of the Rainbow)
M VEM JSUN
HOMES
(Great Lakes)
(8 planets)
b.) Narrative Chaining
EX. My very excellent mother
just sent us noodles
c.) Rhyming
EX. “In 1492, Columbus
sailed the ocean blue”
d.) Method of Location
*associating an item w/ the actual
place the item is found can help
you remember an entire list of
items
EX. Mr. Holden’s Grocery list
e.) Peg Method
*a rhyming association technique
THE END
APPLAUSE