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Chapter 9-Human Memory Memory Constructed Flashbulb Old memory teaching: New understanding Car Accident video 3 Questions to begin this chapter: How does information get into memory? Encoding How is information maintained in memory? Storage How is information pulled back out of memory? Retrieval 3 processes of memory Requires attention Encoding Storage Maintains encoded information in memory over time. What factors help or hinder memory storage? Recovering information from memory stores. Why are some strategies better than others? Retrieval AUTOMATIC PROCESSING Encoding Info about space, time and frequency Did you see me earlier today? What did you eat this morning? Other examples? Only one of these images of a penny is correct. Which one is it? EFFORTFUL PROCESSING Encoding Attention focuses awareness on a narrow range of stimuli or events Divided Attention Encoding EFFORTFUL Encoding Rehearsal Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2 (Amount remembered depends on amount of time spent learning) Ebbinghaus Curve 5 Minute University EFFORTFUL Encoding Next-in-line-effect Over learning More rehearsal More learning 588-2300 _________? Spacing 5 X in one month vs. once a month for 5 months? Implications for studying? Effortful Encoding Serial Position Effect Percent age of words recalle d 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Primacy=tenden cy to recall better the first items in a list Recency=tende ncy to recall better last items in list 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Position of word in list 9 10 11 12 WHAT WE ENCODE Meaning—Visual Droodles Encoding WHAT WE ENCODE Use visual imagery Truth It’s easier to do with some words than with others ‘Dual coding theory’-memory enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall Juggler WHAT WE ENCODE Meaning—Acoustic “Sounds like….” “Rhymes with…” Encoding WHAT WE ENCODE Meaning—Semantic O TTFFSSENT Thunstofam Encoding Try to recall this description of an activity http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/daniel_kahn eman_the_riddle_of_experience_vs_memory. html WHAT WE ENCODE “How is information personally relevant?” This seems to create additional elaboration and better organization of information WHAT WE ENCODE Linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding Self-generated examples are the best WHAT WE ENCODE Encoding Mnemonic devices enhance encoding Method of Loci “Yo Sacramento” Acronym (Roy G. Biv) HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior Link system (dog, envelope, thirteen, yarn, window) Storage ORGANIZATION-Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units like horizontal organization— 1776149218121941 Phone numbers often occurs automatically RA INHE LPSF ARM ERSG RO WCRO PS Giraffe, Parsnip, Zebra, Radish, Diver, Broker, Spinach, Baker, Woodchuck, Dancer, Weasel, Pumpkin, Amos, Typist, Byron, Plumber, Moses, Cabbage, Sherman, Waiter, Bernard, Carrot, Leopard, Printer, Otto, Noah, Chipmunk, Adam, Chemist, Turnip, Simon, Howard, Milkman, Gerard, Panther, Oswald, Druggist, Reindeer, Owen, Parsley, Otter, Grocer, Badger, Camel , Baboon, Florist, Rhubarb, Melon, Mustard , Wallace, Dentist, Muskrat, Mushroom, Lettuce, Donkey, Blacksmith, Eggplant, Garlic, Wildcat, Jason. WHAT WE ENCODE Organization—Hierarchies Inspiration software Encoding STORAGE-Maintaining information in memory Information processing theories are metaphors for functionally distinct types of memory rehearsal Storage Sensory input Attention retrieval Sensory memory Short term memory Long term memory STORAGE Preserves information in it’s original sensory form for a brief time. PSYCHSIM 5-Sperling experiment Sensory input Sensory memory STORAGE Preserves information in it’s original sensory form for a brief time. 1-Iconic Sensory input 2-echoic Sensory memory STORAGE Short-term memory-A limited capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for about 20 seconds Attention Short term memory STORAGE Short-term “Magic Number” = Simon? Attention Short term memory STORAGE working memory Central executive: controls our attention and coordinates working memory for a specific task Phonological loop: stores and utilizes semantic (word) information Visuo-spatial sketchpad: stores and utilizes speech based information STORAGE You can maintain information in STM indefinitely by rehearsal Until you get distracted….. rehearsal Attention Short term memory Storage: Long-Term Memory How does storage work? Synaptic changes Long-term Potentiation increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation Strong emotions make for stronger memories some stress hormones boost learning and retention Storage: Long-Term Memory MRI scan of hippocampus (in red) Hippocampus Storage: Long-Term Memory Amnesia--the loss of memory Clive Wearing Explicit Memory Clive wearing 2 memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare also called declarative memory hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage Implicit Memory retention independent of conscious recollection also called procedural memory Storage: Long-Term Memory Subsystems Types of long-term memories Explicit (declarative) With conscious recall Facts-general knowledge (“semantic memory”) Personally experienced events (“episodic memory”) Implicit (nondeclarative) Without conscious recall Skills-motor and cognitive Dispositionsclassical and operant conditioning effects Retrieval: Getting Information Out Recall measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier as on a fill-in-the blank test Recognition Measure of memory in which the person has only to identify items previously learned as on a multiple-choice test Relearning memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time Retrieval Cues Deja Vu (French)--already seen cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience "I've experienced this before." Mood-congruent Memory tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues State-dependent Memory what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state Retrieval Cues Percentage of words recalled 40 30 20 10 0 Water/ land Land/ water Different contexts for hearing and recall Water/ water Land/ land Same contexts for hearing and recall Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Retrieval Forgotten information feels like it’s ‘right there’, but you can’t quite get it Ultimate puzzle: Why do people forget?? The woman who couldn’t forget Forgetting Forgetting as encoding failure Information never enters the longterm memory Attention External events Short- Encoding Sensory term memory Encoding memory Encoding failure leads to forgetting Longterm memory Retrieval Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory Attention External events Sensory memory Encoding Encoding Short-term Long-term memory Retrieval memory Retrieval failure leads to forgetting Forgetting as Interference Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information Proactive (forward acting) Interference disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information Forgetting as Interference Forgetting Retroactive Interference Percentage of syllables recalled 90% Without interfering events, recall is better 80 After sleep 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 After remaining awake 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hours elapsed after learning syllables 8 Forgetting Forgetting can occur at any memory stage As we process information, we filter, Memory Construction We filter information and fill in missing pieces Misinformation Effect incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event Source Amnesia attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution) Eyewitness testimony Memory Construction Depiction of actual accident Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Memory construction Memory Construction Memories of Abuse Repressed or Constructed? Child sexual abuse does occur Some adults do actually forget such episodes False Memory Syndrome condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists Memory Construction Most people can agree on the following: Injustice happens Incest happens Forgetting happens Recovered memories are commonplace Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are especially unreliable Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting Improve Your Memory Study repeatedly to boost recall Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material Make material personally meaningful Use mnemonic devices associate with peg words--something already stored make up story chunk--acronyms Improve Your Memory Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and mood Recall events while they are fresh-before you encounter misinformation Minimize interference Test your own knowledge rehearse determine what you do not yet know