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Memory
The ability of the mind or
of an individual or
organism to
retain learned
information
and knowledge of past
events and experiences
and to retrieve it
William James on Memory
“The art of remembering is the art of thinking.
When we wish to fix a new thing
in either our own mind or a pupil's,
our conscious effort
should not be so much to impress and retain it
as to connect it with something else already there.
The connecting is the thinking;
and,
if we attend clearly to the connection,
the connected thing will certainly be likely
to remain within recall.”
Connect to Remember
10 names you should know
Atkinson & Shiffrin
Baddeley, Alan
Bartlett, Frederic
Craik & Lockhart
Ebbinghaus, Hermann
Galton, Francis
Jacobs, Joseph
James, William
Loftus, Elizabeth
Miller, George
New Thinking
Early experiences have decisive impact
Brain development is non-linear:
There are optimum times for acquiring
different kinds of knowledge and skills
Brain development dependant on interplay
between genes born with & experiences
Age three, brains twice as active as adult.
Activity drops off in adolescence.
Early interactions not only create
context, directly affect way brain is
“wired”
Brain grows and continues development
through death- provided the right
conditions are met.
Memory in the Brain
Image shows
what regions
in subject's
brain were
involved in
memory task.
Improves
understanding
of "working
memory"
Brain areas:
• Pre-frontal cortex--retrieval & working memory
• Hippocampus & other parts of Thalamus--longterm memories
• Amygdala--emotional events, fear conditioning
• Occipital & Temporal Lobes--visual memories
Sir Frederic Charles Bartlett (1886-1969) was British psychologist
One of forerunners of cognitive psychology
famous study cast considerable light on formation of memory. Composed
short fable called The War of the Ghosts to test memory. Could you recall events?
Kenneth Craik
1943 wrote The Nature of Explanation.
concept of mental models, mind forms models
of reality and uses them to predict similar
future events.
One of earliest practitioners of
cognitive science.
R.S. Lockhart
Principles:
1. The greater the processing of information during learning,
more it will be retained and remembered. Practice,Practice,Practice!
2. Processing will be automatic unless attention is focused on a particular level.
Three Stages of Memory
7 items
Hermann Ebbinghaus
pioneered experimental study of memory, discovered forgetting curve / learning curve.
A typical graph of the
forgetting curve
shows that humans
tend to halve their
memory of newly
learned knowledge in
a matter of days or
weeks unless they
consciously review
the learned material.
Ebbinghaus Learning Curve
Francis Galton
(1822-1911)
British Psychologist
•Coined term "eugenics" and
phrase "nature versus
nurture“
• Discovered that fingerprints
were an index of personal
identity
•Advocated human
breeding restrictions to
curtail breeding of
'feeble-minded'
The first systematic experimental work to be done on STM
was by
Joseph Jacobs (1887)
He devised a technique called ‘Digit Span’ which has
played an important role in memory research
Most people can manage 6 or 7 digits, but there is a large
range (4-10+)
This can be improved by speaking them aloud or by chunking
http://www.dushkin.com/connectext/psy/ch07/digitspan.mhtml
The Nature of Memory
•Encoding: Gets information
into memory.
•Storage: Retains information
over time.
•Retrieval: Take information
out of storage.
Encoding
first of three stages in memory process, involving processes associated with
receiving or registering stimuli through senses and modifying that information.
Levels of Processing Theory:
States that memory is continuum from shallow to deep.
Shallow Level: Physical and perceptual
features analyzed.
Intermediate Level: Stimulus is recognized
and labeled.
Deepest Level: Semantic, meaningful,
symbolic characters used.
Sensory Memory Storage
Holds information from world in original form only for instant.
•Echoic Memory:
Auditory memory
lasts several seconds.
Iconic Memory:
Visual memory lasts
about 1/4 second.
George Sperling 1960
documented existence of iconic
memory (sensory memory subtypes)
with free-recall & cued-recall
experiments
Short Term (Working) Memory Storage
Miller's Magic Number
George Miller's classic 1956 study found amount of information which can
be remembered on one exposure is between five and nine items,
Applying range of +2 or -2, number 7 became known as
Miller's Magic Number, number of items held in
Short-Term Memory
working memory was referred to as short-term memory, primary memory,
immediate memory, operant memory, or provisional memory
Maintenance Rehearsal
Encoding
Sensory
Sensory
Memory
Input
Attention
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Long-term
memory
Retrieval
Working Memory
Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch proposed Model of Working Memory 1974
• Visuospatial sketch pad - holds visual and spatial info
• Phonological loop - holds verbal information
• Central executive - coordinates all activities of working
memory; brings new information into working memory from
sensory and long-term memory
Visuospatial
Sketch Pad
Central
Executive
Phonological
Loop
Episodic buffer
• In 2000, Baddeley added fourth component called
'episodic buffer'.
• third slave system, dedicated to linking information
across domains to form integrated units of visual,
spatial, and verbal information with time sequencing
(or chronological ordering)
• memory of a story or a movie scene.
• assumed to have links to long-term memory and
semantical meaning
Long-Term Memory
Maintenance Rehearsal
Encoding
Sensory
Input
Attention
Sensory
Memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Long-term
memory
Retrieval
relatively permanent type of memory
holds huge amounts of information
long period of time
Long-Term Memory
Long-term Memory
Explicit Memory
Episodic
Memory
experiences
Semantic
Memory
facts
Implicit Memory
Procedural
Memory
skills
Classical
Conditioning
learning
Priming
cues
Explicit Memory
Episodic Memory Semantic Memory
•Explicit Memory: conscious recollection of information,
such as specific facts or events
•Semantic Memory: person’s knowledge of world
•Episodic Memory: retention of information about the
where and when of life’s happenings
•Prospective Memory: Remembering information about
something in future
time-based or event-based.
Retrieval – Explicit Memory
• Context-Dependent Memory
– more successful at retrieving if in same
environment in which we stored them (cues)
Olfactory is strongest
• State-Dependent Memory
– more successful at retrieving if in same
mood as when we stored them
Implicit Memory
Classical
Conditioning
Procedural
Memory
Priming
•Implicit Memory: behavior is affected by prior experience
without that experience being consciously recollected
•Classical Conditioning
•Procedural Memory: Memory for skills.
•Priming: Information that people already have in
storage is activated to help them remember new
information better and faster
Declarative vs. procedural memory
• Declarative memory (explicit memory):
–
–
–
–
facts
dates
events
Hippocampus is critical
• Procedural memory (non-declarative/implicit):
– how to perform an act (ride a bicycle)
– basal ganglia (dorsal striatum / caudate-putamen) is
critical
Atkinson-Shiffrin model, Multi-store model or Multi-memory model 1968
human memory involves sequence of three stages:
Added later
Original
Model
Memory Improvement
Donald Hebb argued that it was doubtful that a chemical process could occur fast
enough to accommodate immediate memory, yet remain stable enough to
accommodate permanent memory.
Hence, the present theory of three storage areas.
Memory Measures
• Recognition specific cue is matched against LTM
• Recall general cue used to search memory
• E.g. define term “operant conditioning”
• Relearning learns material second time.
Memory
Serial Position Effect: tendency for
items at beginning and end of list to be
recalled more readily.
Probability of Recall
1.00
Primacy
Effect
.50
.00
1
5
Recency
Effect
10
Serial Position of Item
15
Theories of Forgetting
• Decay theory: memory trace fades with time
• Interference theory information competes for
retrieval
• Proactive interference: old information interferes
with recall of new information
• Retroactive interference: new information interferes
with recall of old information
• Motivated forgetting: loss of painful memories
• Encoding failure: information never encoded
properly from STM to LTM and thus forgotten.
• Retrieval failure: information still in LTM, but
can’t be recalled - retrieval cue is absent
“Trace Consolidation Theory”
• memory hasn’t had time to become firmly
established
• Consolidation is a process lasting for several
hours, or possibly even days, which fixes
information in long-term memory.
• Recently formed memories still being
consolidated are especially vulnerable to
interference and forgetting.
most popular theory among neuroscientists
Memory Disorders
•Korsikoff’s Syndrome (chronic alcoholics), Alzheimer’s, patients like H.M. with
hippocampal/thalamus damage, Amnesia
• Severe epilepsy, treated with surgery to bilaterally remove
medial temporal lobes.
• Operation 9/1953, 27 years old
• Tested 4/1955, age 29
– Reported date 3/1953, age of 27
– No memories since operation
– IQ better than pre-op (112)
– Fewer seizures
• Profound failure to create new memories
– Can’t find new home (after 10 mos.)
– Can’t remember new people, names, tasks
H.M.:
• “Right now, I’m wondering, Have I done or said anything
amiss? You see, at this moment everything looks clear to
me, but what happened just before? That’s what worries
me. It’s like waking from a dream; I just don’t remember.”
• “…Every day is alone in itself,
whatever enjoyment
I’ve had, and whatever
sorrow I’ve had.”
• Deficits
• Complete loss of episodic memory
– Events/People since operation
• Location of new home
• Rey figure: copy but
not recalled
• Semantic memory
– Language frozen in 50’s
– Exceptions:
Ayatollah, rock ‘n roll
HM
Amnesia
• Amnesia - forgetting produced by brain injury or trauma
– Retrograde amnesia problems with recall of
information prior to trauma
– Anterograde amnesia problems with recall of
information after trauma
Retrograde amnesia
Anterograde amnesia
Point of Trauma
Eyewitness Testimony
• Primarily because of constructive nature of
memory, reliability of eyewitness testimony
is questioned.
DNA
Lineups Can Be Biased
Jurors Believe, Not Reason
Repressed Memories
Hotly Debated
• Reliability called into question due to:
– Constructive Recall: according to schema theory of memory
organization long-term memories are stored as parts of
schemas (cognitive structures used for organizing information about
events).
– Ulric Neisser suggested there are times when memories
are distorted by adding or changing some of details in
order to fit with schema.
– Source amnesia: explicit memory disorder in which
someone can recall certain information, but does not know
where or how it was obtained.
– Sleeper effect: Carl Hovland refers to "hidden" effect of
propaganda message even when it comes from discredible
source.
Elizabeth Loftus
Works on human memory and how it can be changed by facts,
ideas, suggestions and other forms of post-event information.
work is controversial
has direct application in law and counseling.
1992 by False Memory Syndrome Foundation (FMSF)
theory that some adults who remember instances of
abuse from childhood may be mistaken .Foundation
hypothesizes that so-called false memories may be
result of recovered memory therapy, another term
coined by the FSMF in the early 1990s.
Pick a good elephant
Positive Pollyanna Principle
Pollyanna principle or Pollyannaism
•people agree with positive statements describing them.
•sometimes called positivity bias.
•phenomenon similar to Forer effect IBM term, stating “machines should work, people
should think”(aka. personal validation fallacy or Barnum effect after P. T. Barnum)
Von Restorff Effect also called the isolation effect, predicts that item that
"stands out like a sore thumb" (called distinctive encoding) more likely remembered
Zeigarnik Effect people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks
better than completed ones
Ways to Improve Working Memory
•Chunking
•Rehearsal
H.Ebbinghaus = meaningful words easier to recall
• takes 10 times more exposure to material in order
to learn if words are random
• rhymes, song and stories help
• organize:
Most important first = primacy effect
Most important last = recency effect
• put it in context
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FBpXMLDMDf0