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Thinking About Psychology:
The Science of Mind and
Behavior
Charles T. Blair-Broeker
Randal M. Ernst
Chapter 08
Memory
Module 18
Information
Processing
Module 18: Information Processing
The InformationProcessing Model
Amazing Memory
• Play “A Super-Memorist Advises on
Study Strategies” (9:57) Module #20
from The Brain: Teaching Modules (2nd
edition).
Information Processing Model
• Encoding - getting information into the
memory system
• Storage - the retaining of encoded
information over time
• Retrieval - getting encoded information
out of memory storage
Memory
• Play “What Is Memory?” (3:10)
Segment #13 from Psychology: The
Human Experience.
Module 18: Information Processing
Encoding:
Automatic and
Effortful Processing
Automatic Processing
• The unconscious encoding of some
information without effort
• Usually information on space, time and
frequency
Effortful Processing
• Encoding that requires attention and a
conscious deliberate effort
• The best processing is through rehearsal
or practice.
Rehearsal
• The conscious repetition of information
in order to encode it
• The more time spent on rehearsal, the
more information one tends to
remember.
Rehearsal and Retention
(From Baddeley, 1982)
Memory and the Brain
• Play “Remembering What Matters”
(8:30) Segment #16 from Scientific
American Frontiers: Video Collection
for Introductory Psychology (2nd
edition).
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
• German philosopher who did early
memory studies with nonsense syllables
• Developed the forgetting curve, also
called the “retention curve” or
“Ebbinghaus curve”
Overlearning
• Continuing to rehearse after the point
the information has been learned
• Rehearsing past the point of mastery
• Helps ensure information will be
available even under stress
Module 18: Information Processing
Encoding:
Serial Position Effect
Serial Position Effect
• The tendency to recall the first and last
items in a list
• Primacy effect – the ability to recall
information near the beginning of a list
• Recency effect – the ability to recall
information near the end of a list
Primacy/Recency Effect
(From Craik & Watkins, 1973)
Module 18: Information Processing
Encoding:
Spacing Effect
Spacing Effect
• The tendency for distributed practice to
yield better retention than is achieved
through massed practice
Distributed Practice
• Spreading rehearsal out in several
sessions separated by period of time
• Usually enhances the recalling of the
information
Massed Practice
• Putting all rehearsal together in one long
session (cramming)
• Not as effective as distributed practice
Module 18: Information Processing
Encoding:
Encoding Meaning
Semantic Encoding
• The encoding of meaning
• Encoding information that is meaningful
enhances recall
Semantic Encoding
(From Craik & Tulving, 1975)
Acoustic Encoding
• Encoding information based on the
sounds of the information
Acoustic Encoding
(From Craik & Tulving, 1975)
Visual Encoding
• Encoding information based on the
images of the information
Visual Encoding
(From Craik & Tulving, 1975)
Self-Reference Effect
• The enhanced semantic encoding of
information that is personally relevant
• Making information meaningful to a
person by making it relevant to one’s
life
Module 18: Information Processing
Encoding:
Encoding Imagery
Module 18: Information Processing
Encoding:
Mnemonic Devices
Mnemonic Device
• A memory trick or technique for
remembering specific facts
• “Every good boy does fine” to
remember the notes on the lines of the
scale
• “People say you could have odd lots of
good years” as a way to remember how
to spell “psychology”
Method of Loci
• A mnemonic device in which the person
associates items to be remembered with
imaginary places
Peg-Word System
• A mnemonic device in which the person
associates items to remember with a list
of peg words already memorized
• Goal is to visualize the items to
remember with the items on the pegs
Peg Word System
Module 18: Information Processing
Encoding:
Organizing
Information
Chunking
• Organizing information into meaningful
units
• More information can be encoded if
organized into meaningful chunks.
Module 18: Information Processing
Storage
Three Storage Systems
• Three distinct storage systems :
– Sensory Memory
– Short-Term Memory (includes
Working Memory)
– Long-Term Memory
Module 18: Information Processing
Storage:
Sensory Memory
Sensory Memory
• The brief, initial coding of sensory
information in the memory system
– Iconic store – visual information
– Echoic store – sound information
• Information held just long enough to
make a decision on its importance
Module 18: Information Processing
Storage:
Short-Term Memory
Short-Term Memory
• Conscious, activated memory which
holds information briefly before it is
stored or forgotten
• Holds approximately seven, plus or
minus two, chunks of information
• Can retain the information as long as it
is rehearsed
• Also called “working memory”
Module 18: Information Processing
Storage:
Long-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory
• The relatively permanent and limitless
storehouse of the memory system
• Holds memories without conscious
effort
Flashbulb Memory
• A vivid, clear memory of an emotionally
significant moment or event
• Can be personal memories or centered
around a shared event
Flashbulb Memory
• Play “Flashbulb Memories” (3:54)
Segment #14 from Psychology: The
Human Experience.
Module 18: Information Processing
Storage:
Memory and the
Brain
Long-Term Potentiation
• An increase in a synapse’s firing
efficiency
• Believed to be the neural basis of
learning and memory
Memory and the Brain
• Play “The Locus of Learning and
Memory” (6:28) Module #16 from The
Brain: Teaching Modules (2nd edition).
Module 18: Information Processing
Storage:
Explicit and Implicit
Memories
Explicit Memory
• Memory of facts and experiences that
one must consciously retrieve and
declare
• Processed through the hippocampus
Explicit Memories
Explicit Memories
Implicit Memory
• Memory of skills and procedures that
are retrieved without conscious
recollection
• Processed through the cerebellum
Implicit Memories
Implicit Memories
Memory and the Hippocampus
• Damage to the hippocampus would
result in the inability to form new
explicit memories, but the ability to
remember the skills of implicit
memories
Memory and the Hippocampus
Memory
• Play “True or False?” (9:00) Segment
#17 from Scientific American Frontiers:
Video Collection for Introductory
Psychology (2nd edition).
Hippocampus and Memory
• Play “Living with Amnesia: The
Hippocampus and Memory” (10:35)
Module #18 from The Brain: Teaching
Modules (2nd edition).
Module 18: Information Processing
Retrieval
Retrieval
• The process of getting information out
of memory storage
• Two forms of retrieval
– Recall
– Recognition
Recall
• A measure of memory in which the
person must retrieve information learned
earlier
• Essay, fill-in-the-blank, and short
answer test questions test recall
Recognition
• A measure of memory in which a person
must identify items learned earlier
• Multiple choice and matching test
questions test recognition
Module 18: Information Processing
Retrieval: Context
Context Effect
• The enhanced ability to retrieve
information when you are in an
environment similar to the one in which
you encoded the information
Context
Module 18: Information Processing
Retrieval:
State Dependency
State Dependent Memory
• The enhanced ability to retrieve
information when the person is in the
same physical and emotional state they
were in when they encoded the
information
• The retrieval state is congruent with the
encoding state
Lack of Explicit Memories
• Insert “Clive Wearing – Living Without
Memory” Video #25 from Worth’s
Digital Media Archive for Psychology.
• Instructions for importing the video file
can be found in the ‘Readme’ file on the
CD-ROM.
Lack of Explicit Memories
• Play “Life Without Memory: The Case
of Clive Wearing, Part I” (12:35)
Segment #10 from The Mind:
Psychology Teaching Modules (2nd
edition).
Lack of Explicit Memory
• Play “Clive Wearing, Part 2: Living
Without Memory” (32:35) Segment #11
from The Mind: Psychology Teaching
Modules (2nd edition).
The End