Download Memory

PSYCHOLOGY
(8th Edition)
David Myers
PowerPoint Slides
Aneeq Ahmad
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2006
1
Memory
Chapter 9
2
Short Term Memory Test - Pictures
When you are ready to see the objects that you
should remember, click on the start button. The
objects will stay on your computer screen for 30
seconds. After 30 sec., you will be brought to a
different page automatically. At this time, write
down all the items you remember.
3
Trial #
The letters I remember are:….
1
2
3
4
5
6
4
5
Remembering and Forgetting
This program looks at the
complex process called memory:
how images, ideas, language,
and even physical actions,
sounds, and smells are translated
into codes, represented in the
memory and retrieved when
needed. With Dr. Richard
Thompson of the University of
Southern California and Dr.
Diana Woodruff-Pak of Temple
University.
Complete the Window Notes – Memory Video
6
Memory
The Phenomenon of
Memory
 Information Processing
Encoding: Getting
Information in
 How We Encode
 What We Encode
7
Memory
Storage: Retaining
Information
 Sensory Memory
 Working/Short-term Memory
 Long-Term Memory
 Storing Memories in the Brain
8
Memory
Retrieval: Getting
Information Out
 Retrieval Cues
Forgetting
 Encoding Failure
 Storage Decay
 Retrieval Failure
9
Memory
Memory Construction
 Misinformation and Imagination
Effect
 Source Amnesia
 Discerning True and False
Memories
 Children’s Eyewitness Recall
 Repressed or Constructed
Memories of Abuse?
10
Memory
Improving Memory
11
Memory
Memory is the basis for knowing your friends,
your neighbors, the English language, the
national anthem, and yourself.
If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be
a stranger to you; every language foreign; every
task new; and even you yourself would be a
stranger.
12
The Phenomenon of Memory
Memory is any indication that learning has
persisted over time. It is our ability to store and
retrieve information.
13
Learning that has persisted over time; our
ability to encode, store and retrieve
information
Definition => clear memory of an
emotionally significant moment or event
Personal example =>9/11; first state
champion/championship; getting
engaged to Julie
Characteristics of FB memories:
1. “NOW PRINT” photograph theory, entire event is registered
2. are accurate – this is not always the case
3. created at the time of the event, revised over time
How do we remember?
1. ENCODING – processing information; getting
info to our brain
2. STORAGE – retaining the information
3. RETRIEVAL – getting the information back
from our brain / out of memory storage
14
Flashbulb Memory
Ruters/ Corbis
A unique and highly emotional moment may
give rise to a clear, strong, and persistent
memory called flashbulb memory. However,
this memory is not free from errors.
President Bush being told of 9/11 attack.
15
Stages of Memory
Keyboard
(Encoding)
Disk
(Storage)
Sequential Process
Monitor
(Retrieval)
16
Atkinson & Shiffrin => 3 stages processing model (see pg. 320)
Sensory Memory – recording/ registering information
Short Term Memory – encode / tag as meaningful/ pay attention
Long Term Memory – rehearse it/ deem it important/ recall it later
similar to #2, BUT focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information. VERY LIMITED
(visual / verbal). ALSO CALLED WORKING MEMORY!
Frank Wartenberg/ Picture Press/
Corbis
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
The Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model
of memory includes a) sensory memory, b)
short-term memory, and c) long-term memory.
17
Problems with the Model
1. Some information skips the first two stages
and enters long-term memory automatically.
2. Since we cannot focus all the sensory
information in the environment, we select
information (through attention) that is
important to us.
3. The nature of short-term memory is more
complex.
18
Working Memory
Alan Baddeley (2002) proposes that working memory
contains auditory and visual processing controlled by
the central executive through an episodic buffer.
19
TOP 10 LIST
10. USE what works BEST for you…BUT make sure it works well!
9. PRTR – Preview, Read, Think, Review
8. Test yourself, acts as rehearsal, also lets you focus on what you DO NOT
know!
7. MINIMIZE Interference (we ALL r guilty of this….)
6. Recall and Record while information is NEW / FRESH (minimizes
misinformation)
5. Activate retrieval clues (mentally recreate the situation / mood in which
original learning occurred)… SCHAB (1990) Chocolate Experiment
4. Use MNEMONICS – peg words,
Subjects were exposed to
the smell of chocolate while
stories, chunking
studying, later the subjects
3. Make it PERSONAL and ELABORATE–
were exposed to the smell
again and they performed
in your own words, make associations
better on test
IE. MIND MAPS, Sensory figures
2. TIME – spend more on it and actively think about it, critical reflection
**1. Repetition / OVERLEARN…marathon not a sprint!
20
Automatic Processing
•unconscious encoding of incidental information
(space, time, and frequency)
•little or NO effort at all is used! It is very difficult to shut off
•some types of automatic processing we can / do learn
•doesn’t affect how we think about other things
Effortful Processing
•requires attention and conscious effort
•rehearsal and repetition
•Studies done by Ebbinghaus
•Some effortful processing will become automatic
21
Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
1. Some information (route to your school) is
automatically processed.
2. However, new or unusual information
(friend’s new cell-phone number) requires
attention and effort.
22
Automatic Processing
We process an enormous amount of information
effortlessly, such as the following:
1. Space: While reading a textbook, you
automatically encode the place of a picture
on a page.
2. Time: We unintentionally note the events
that take place in a day.
3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of
things that happen to you.
23
Effortful Processing
© Bananastock/ Alamy
Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit
Committing novel
information to memory
requires effort just like
learning a concept from
a textbook. Such
processing leads to
durable and accessible
memories.
24
Rehearsal
Effortful learning
usually requires
rehearsal or conscious
repetition.
http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de
Ebbinghaus studied
rehearsal by using
nonsense syllables:
TUV YOF GEK XOZ
Hermann Ebbinghaus
(1850-1909)
25

cramming

26
Rehearsal
The more times the
nonsense syllables were
practiced on Day 1,
the fewer repetitions
were required to
remember them on Day
2.
27
Methods of Encoding = getting info in!
CRAIK & Tulving
Semantic = encoding of meaning ie.
Meaning of words
BEST METHOD FOR ENCODING
Produces better recognition at a later time!
Acoustic = the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
Better than visual, but not as good as semantic
Visual = the encoding of pictures / images
Least effective method for encoding
28
What We Encode
1. Encoding by meaning
2. Encoding by images
3. Encoding by organization
29
Encoding Meaning
“Whale”
Q: Did the word begin
with a capital letter?
Structural
Encoding
Shallow
Q: Did the word rhyme
with the word
“weight”?
Phonemic
Encoding
Intermediate
Q: Would the word fit
in the sentence?
He met a __________
in the street.
Semantic
Encoding
Deep
Craik and Lockhart (1972)
30
Results
31
Visual Encoding
Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to
effortful processing, especially when combined
with semantic encoding.
Both photos: Ho/AP Photo
Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking
in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.
32
NEMONIC DEVICES USE IMAGERY OR MENTAL PICTURES AS MEMORY AIDS
A Super-Memorist Advises on Study Strategies
This module explores the brain’s potential for
storage-as-memory. Rajan Mahadevan, a “supermemorist,” demonstrates his phenomenal memory by
scanning a 7 by 7 matrix of digits and recalling all
forty-nine digits forward, backward, and by columns.
He also claims to have memorized 100,000 digits of
pi. Mahadevan offers suggestions to help college
students improve their study habits when learning
new material.
33
Mnemonics
Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids.
Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery in
aiding memory.
1. Method of Loci
2. Link Method
34
Method of Loci
List of Items
Imagined Locations
Charcoal
Pens
Bed Sheets
Hammer
.
.
.
Rug
Backyard
Study
Bedroom
Garage
.
.
.
Living Room
35
Link Method
List of Items
Newspaper
Shaving cream
Pen
Umbrella
.
.
.
Lamp
Involves forming a mental image of items to be
remembered in a way that links them together.
36
Organizing Information for
Encoding
Break down complex information into broad
concepts and further subdivide them into
categories and subcategories.
1. Chunking
2. Hierarchy
37
Chunking
Organizing items into a familiar, manageable
unit. Try to remember the numbers below.
1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
If you are well versed with American history,
chunk the numbers together and see if you
can recall them better. 1776 1492 1812 1941.
38
Chunking
Acronyms are another way of chunking
information to remember it.
HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
PEMDAS = Parentheses, Exponent, Multiply, Divide, Add, Subtract
ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
39
Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into broad
concepts and further subdivided into categories
and subcategories.
40
Encoding Summarized in a
Hierarchy
41
Why did you forget?
42
Word # 1
Cat
Word # 2
Apple
Word # 3
Ball
Word # 4
Tree
Word # 5
Square
Word # 6
Head
Word # 7
House
Word # 8
Door
Word # 9
Box
Word # 10
Car
Word # 11
King
Word # 12
Hammer
Word # 13
Milk
Word # 14
Fish
Word # 15
Book
Word # 16
Tape
Word # 17
Arrow
Word # 18
Flower
Word # 19
Key
Word # 20
shoe
43
1. After collecting data, plot data on the graph.
2. Is there better recall of any particular words on the list? If so,
which ones?
3. Was there better recall of words that were first or last on the
list? If so, explain why…
4. What does the pattern on the graph look like?
5. serial – position curve –
6. This type of experiment provides evidence of 2 types of
memory processes:
7. Primacy = the ability to recall the first few items on a list
8. Recency = “
“ the last…
44
Memory Effects
1. Next-in-line-Effect: When you are so
anxious about being next that you cannot
remember what the person just before you
in line says, but you can recall what other
people around you say.
2. Spacing Effect: We retain information better
when we rehearse over time.
3. Serial Position Effect: When your recall is
better for first and last items on a list, but
poor for middle items.
45
Spacing Effect
Distributing rehearsal (spacing effect) is better
than practicing all at once. Robert Frost’s poem
could be memorized with fair ease if spread over
time.
ACQUAINTED WITH THE NIGHT
Robert Frost
I have been one acquainted with the night.
I have walked out in rain — and back in rain.
I have outwalked the furthest city light.
……
46
Memory Feats
47
Serial Position Effect
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
TUV
ZOF
GEK
WAV
XOZ
TIK
FUT
WIB
SAR
POZ
REY
GIJ
Better recall
Poor recall
Better recall
48
Storage: Retaining Information
Storage is at the heart of memory. Three
stores of memory are shown below:
Working
Memory
STM
Sensory
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
49
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
50
Sensory Memory
Percent Recognized
The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss.
80
60
40
20
0.15
0.30
0.50
Time (Seconds)
1.00
51
The duration of sensory memory varies for the
different senses.
Iconic
0.5 sec. long
Echoic
3-4 sec. long
Hepatic
< 1 sec. long
52
STM -Working Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
53
SHORT Term Memory 
+/- 2 CHUNKS
MAGICAL #7, plus or minus 2
54
Working Memory
Working memory, the new name for short-term
memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short
duration (20 seconds).
Sir George Hamilton observed that he could accurately remember up
to 7 beans thrown on the floor. If there were more beans, he guessed.
55
Capacity
The Magical Number Seven, Plus or
Minus Two: Some Limits on Our
Capacity for Processing Information
(1956).
Ready?
MUTGIKTLRSYP
You should be able to
recall 7±2 letters.
George Miller
56
Chunking
The capacity of the working memory may be
increased by “Chunking.”
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
FBI TWA CIA IBM
4 chunks
57
Duration
Brown/Peterson and Peterson (1958/1959)
measured the duration of working memory by
manipulating rehearsal.
CHJ
MKT
HIJ
547
547
544
541
…
CH??
The duration of the working memory is about
20 sec.
58
Working Memory Duration
59
Long-Term Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
60
Long-Term Memory
Unlimited capacity store. Estimates on capacity
range from 1000 billion to 1,000,000 billion bits of
information (Landauer, 1986).
R.J. Erwin/ Photo Researchers
The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of
buried pine seeds during winter and spring.
61
Where are memories stored in your Brain?
No 1 specific spot
Synapses – LTP (long term potentiation) = neural basis for learning and memory; rapid stimulation
Stress & hormones (flashbulb memory)
Implicit Memory vs. Explicit Memory
Procedural
SKILLS/ unconscious
Declarative
FACTS/ conscious
Hippocampus=> explicit memories processed here
Cerebellum => implicit memory processed here
62
Storing Memories in the Brain
1. Through electrical stimulation of the brain,
Wilder Penfield (1967) concluded that old
memories were etched into the brain.
2. Loftus and Loftus (1980) reviewed
Penfield's data and showed that only a
handful of brain stimulated patients
reported flashbacks.
3. Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that
even after removing parts of the brain, the
animals retain partial memory of the maze.
63
In Aplysia, Kandel and
Schwartz (1982) showed
that serotonin release from
VIDEO: The Brain #16
neurons increased after
The Locus of Learning and Memory
conditioning.
Photo: Scientific American
In the history of psychology, the
question of where learning and memory
take place has occupied investigators
for years. Recent work at the National
Institute of Mental Health has brought
scientists closer to resolving the issue.
This module shows magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) technology being used
to identify specific changes in the motor
cortex of human subjects — changes
that correspond to training in particular
tasks.
64
Synaptic
Changes
Both Photos: From N. Toni et al., Nature, 402, Nov. 25 1999. Courtesy of Dominique Muller
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
refers to synaptic enhancement
after learning (Lynch, 2002). An
increase in neurotransmitter
release or receptors on the
receiving neuron indicates
strengthening of synapses.
THE BRAIN #17 - Learning As Synaptic Change
This module presents researchers investigating the
structural changes involved in learning. Research
conducted at the Pasteur Institute in Paris shows that
the learning process involves the formation of new
brain connections and the elimination of others.
Other researchers dispel the myth of brain loss in
aging, present evidence of changes at the cellular
level, and review research on associative learning.
65
Stress Hormones & Memory
Heightened emotions (stress-related or
otherwise) make for stronger memories.
Continued stress may disrupt memory.
Scott Barbour/ Getty Images
66
Hippocampus
Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic
system that processes explicit memories.
Weidenfield & Nicolson archives
67
Anterograde Amnesia
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient
Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the
operation but cannot make new memories. We call
this anterograde amnesia.
Anterograde
Amnesia
(HM)
Memory Intact
No New Memories
Surgery
68
Implicit Memory
HM is unable to make new memories that are
declarative (explicit), but he can form new
memories that are procedural (implicit).
A
B
C
HM learned the Tower of Hanoi (game) after his surgery. Each time
he plays it, he is unable to remember the fact that he has already
played the game.
69
Cerebellum
Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain
that processes implicit memories.
70
Memory Stores
Feature
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
LTM
Encoding
Copy
Phonemic
Semantic
Capacity
Unlimited
7±2 Chunks
Very Large
Duration
0.25 sec.
20 sec.
Years
71
Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories
Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one
can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory
involves learning an action while the individual does not
know or declare what she knows.
72
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval refers to getting information out of
the memory store.
Click here for retrieval notes
Spanky’s Yearbook Archive
Spanky’s Yearbook Archive
73
Measures of Memory
In recognition, the person must identify an item
amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test
requires recognition.)
1. Name the capital of France.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Brussels
Rome
London
Paris
74
Measures of Memory
In recall, the person must retrieve information
using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test requires
recall.)
1. The capital of France is ______.
75
Measures of Memory
In relearning, the individual shows how much
time (or effort) is saved when learning material
for the second time.
List
List
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite
…
Silk
Frog
Ring
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite
…
Silk
Frog
Ring
It took 10 trials
to learn this list
1 day later
Saving
It took 5 trials
to learn the list
Relearning
Trials
X 100
Relearning
Trials
Original
Trials
10
5
10
X 100
50%
76
Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of
associations. These associations are like anchors
that help retrieve memory.
water
smell
fire
smoke
Fire Truck
heat
hose
truck
red
77
Priming
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of
associations, you must first activate one of the
strands that leads to it. This process is called
priming.
78
Context Effects
Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they
learned the list underwater, while they recall more
words on land if they learned that list on land
(Godden & Baddeley, 1975).
Fred McConnaughey/ Photo Researchers
79
Déja Vu
Déja Vu means “I've experienced this before.”
Cues from the current situation may
unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier
similar experience.
© The New Yorker Collection, 1990. Leo Cullum from
cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved
80
Context Effects
After learning to move a mobile by kicking,
infants most strongly respond when retested in
the same context rather than in a different
context (Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989).
Courtesy of Carolyn Rovee-Collier,
Rutgers University
81
Moods and Memories
We usually recall experiences that are consistent
with our current mood. Emotions, or moods,
serve as retrieval cues.
Jorgen Schytte/ Still Pictures
82
Forgetting
An inability to retrieve information due to
poor encoding, storage, or retrieval.
WAR of the GHOSTS
83
1. Where were the 2 men in the story from?
2. What were the 2 men doing at the river?
3. How did the men get up the river?
4. What were the men going up the river to do?
5. Why did the men leave the event?
6. What did the men do when they got home?
7. When did the man fall down?
8. What happened to the man when he fell down?
84
What ways can we systematically change
this type of story when we pass it on?
1. Shortening – omission of detail
2. change in focus – making 1 part of the story more significant, even if it is
not
3. Affective influence => allowing our own feelings / emotions to influence
what we remember
FREUD = “repression” – when something does not fit “ourselves” we
intentionally block it out
4. Change of facts – any # of proper names may be left out or changed to fit
in w/ more familiar ones
5. SCHEMA (Bartlett) – set of beliefs / expectations about something that is
based on past experiences
Provides ways for incoming info to fit in
Influences amount of attention you pay to new information
May lead to stereotypes
Fill in missing info or make inferences
85
3 Reasons why we forget:
1. encoding failure
never entered long term memory
may not have used effortful processing
2. storage failure
Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve (fades quickly, then levels out)
Decay theory
3. retrieval failure
tip of the tongue syndrome
retrieval clues/ cues not available
the more organized the easier to retrieve ( card catalogue)
*priming
86
***interference
1. proactive – prior learning disrupts new learning (forward-acting)
2. retroactive – new learning affects recall of old learning /
information (backward-acting)
87
Encoding Failure
We cannot remember what we do not
encode.
88
Which penny is real?
89
Storage Decay
Poor durability of stored memories leads to
their decay. Ebbinghaus showed this with
his forgetting curve.
90
Retaining Spanish
Bahrick (1984) showed a similar pattern of
forgetting and retaining over 50 years.
Andrew Holbrooke/ Corbis
91
Retrieval Failure
Although the information is retained in the
memory store, it cannot be accessed.
Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure
phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes blood cells
red?) the subject says the word begins with an H
(hemoglobin).
92
Interference
Learning some new information may disrupt
retrieval of other information.
93
Retroactive Interference
Sleep prevents retroactive interference. Therefore, it
leads to better recall.
94
Motivated Forgetting
Motivated Forgetting:
People unknowingly
revise their memories.
Culver Pictures
Repression: A defense
mechanism that banishes
anxiety-arousing
thoughts, feelings, and
memories from
consciousness.
Sigmund Freud
95
Why do we forget?
Forgetting can occur at
any memory stage. We
filter, alter, or lose
much information
during these stages.
96
Memory Construction
While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in
missing pieces of information to make our
recall more coherent.
Misinformation Effect: Incorporating
misleading information into one's memory of
an event.
97
Misinformation and Imagination
Effects
Eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories when
questioned about the event.
Depiction of the actual accident.
98
Misinformation
Group A: How fast were the cars going
when they hit each other?
Group B: How fast were the cars going
when they smashed into each
other?
99
Memory Construction
A week later they were asked: Was there any
broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported
more broken glass than Group A (hit).
Broken Glass? (%)
50
40
32
30
20
14
10
0
Group A (hit)
Group B (Smashed into)
Verb
100
Source Amnesia
Source Amnesia/ Source Confusion
Attributing an event to the wrong source that
we experienced, heard, read, or imagined
(misattribution).
101
Discerning True & False Memories
Just like true perception and illusion, real
memories and memories that seem real are
difficult to discern.
© Simon Niedsenthal
When students formed a happy or angry memory of
morphed (computer blended) faces, they made
the (computer assisted) faces (a), either happier or (b) angrier.
102
False Memories
Repressed or Constructed?
Some adults actually do forget childhood
episodes of abuse.
False Memory Syndrome
A condition in which a person’s identity and
relationships center around a false but strongly
believed memory of a traumatic experience,
which is sometimes induced by well-meaning
therapists.
103
Children’s Eyewitness Recall
Children’s eyewitness recall can be unreliable if
leading questions are posed. However, if
cognitive interviews are neutrally worded, the
accuracy of their recall increases. In cases of
sexual abuse, this usually suggests a lower
percentage of abuse.
104
Memories of Abuse
Are memories of abuse repressed or
constructed?
Many psychotherapists believe that early
childhood sexual abuse results in repressed
memories.
However, other psychologists question such
beliefs and think that such memories may be
constructed.
105
Constructed Memories
Loftus’ research shows that if false memories
(lost at the mall or drowned in a lake) are
implanted in individuals, they construct
(fabricate) their memories.
Don Shrubshell
106
Consensus on Childhood Abuse
Leading psychological associations of the world agree
on the following concerning childhood sexual abuse:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Injustice happens.
Incest and other sexual abuse happens.
People may forget.
Recovered memories are commonplace.
Recovered memories under hypnosis or drugs are
unreliable.
6. Memories of things happening before 3 years of age
are unreliable.
7. Memories, whether real or false, are emotionally
upsetting.
107
Three
Three's of
Memory
3 3's of MEMORY
Concept
What it Means
Example
Three Kinds of Memory
Episodic
Mem.
Memories of events experienced by a person
Remembering what you ate for dinner last night
Semantic
Mem.
General Info (As opposed to remembering personal episodes.)
Remembering the capital cities of the 50 states;
EXPLICIT
Procedural
Mem.
Knowledge of ways of doing things; skill memory
Remembering how to ride a bike or hold a pencil;
IMPLICIT
Three Processes of Memory: Craik / Tulving
Encoding -
Modifying info so that it can be placed in memory; getting info in
Mental representation of the words in this review chart
as a sequence of sounds. (acoustic code); MNEMONICS
Storage
The maintenance of information over time: stm/ ltm
Mental repetition (rehearsal) of the information in this
chart in order to keep in memory
The finding of stored info annd bringing it into consciousness
Recall of the information in this chart; using a
mnemonic device (e.g. Roy G. Biv) to recall the colors
of the visible spectrum.
Retrieval
Three Stages of Memory - Atkinson & Schriffin
Sensory
Mem.
The type or stage of memory that is first encountered by a stimulus and
briefly holds impressions of it.
Continuing to "see" a visual stimulus briefly after it has
been removed (iconic/ echoic)
STM
The type or stage of memory that can hold the information for up to a
minute or so after trace stimulus decays. (also called working memory)
Repeating someone's name in order to remember it, or
relating something new to things that are already known
(7 + OR - 2) MILLER
LTM
The type or stage of memory that is capable of relatively permanent
storage.
The "file cabinets" of memory, where you store items
like the names of your primary school teachers and
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memories of holidays when you were little.
http://thebrainobservatory.ucsd.edu/hm_live.php
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