Download Memory - My CCSD

Memory
Memory is the basis for knowing your friends,
your neighbors, the English language, the
national anthem, and yourself.
If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be a
stranger to you; every language foreign; every
task new; and even you yourself would be a
stranger.
The Phenomenon of Memory
Memory is any indication that learning has
persisted over time. It is our ability to store and
retrieve information.
Flashbulb Memory
Ruters/ Corbis
A unique and highly emotional moment may give
rise to a clear, strong, and persistent memory
called flashbulb memory. However, this memory is
not free from errors.
President Bush being told of 9/11 attack.
Information Processing
Frank Wartenberg/ Picture Press/
Corbis
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
The Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model of
memory includes a) sensory memory, b) shortterm memory, and c) long-term memory.
Memory

Sensory Memory
 the immediate, initial recording of
sensory information in the memory
system
Memory

Short-Term Memory
 activated memory that holds a
few items briefly
 look up a phone number,
then quickly dial before the
information is forgotten

Long-Term Memory
 the relatively permanent and limitless
storehouse of the memory system
Working Memory (Short-term Memory)
Working memory, the new name for short-term
memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short
duration (20 seconds).
Sir George Hamilton observed that he could accurately remember up
to 7 beans thrown on the floor. If there were more beans, he guessed.
Short-Term Memory



Function—conscious processing of
information
• where information is actively worked on
Capacity—limited (holds 7+/-2 items)
Duration—brief storage (about 30 seconds)
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention Working or
Short-term
Memory
Long-Term Memory



Function—organizes and stores information
• more passive form of storage than working memory
Unlimited capacity
Duration—thought by some to be permanent
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Encoding
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Long-term
Working or
memory
Short-term
Memory Retrieval
A Simplified Memory
Model
Sensory input
Attention to important
or novel information
Encoding
External
events
Sensory
memory
Short-term
memory
Encoding
Long-term
memory
Retrieving
Stages of Memory
Keyboard
Disk
Monitor
(Encoding)
(Storage)
(Retrieval)
Sequential Process
Encoding

Encoding—process that controls
movement from working to long-term
memory store; input of memory

Automatic Processing
 unconscious encoding of incidental information
 space
 time
 frequency
 well-learned information
 word meanings
 we can learn automatic processing
 reading backwards
Automatic vs.
Effortful Encoding

Automatic processing
• Examples:
• What did you eat for lunch today?
• Was the last time you studied during the day or night?
• You know the meanings of these very words you are
reading. Are you actively trying to process the definition of
the words?
Sensory Memory

Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Divided into two
types:
• iconic memory–
•
visual
information
echoic memory–
auditory information
Sensory Memory

•
•
•
Sensory
Input
Duration—very brief
retention of images
Sensory
Memory
.3 sec for visual info
2 sec for auditory info
Hearing is remembered better
Sensory Memories

Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory

Function—holds
information long
enough to be
processed for basic
physical characteristics
Capacity—large
•
can hold many items at
once
Sensory Memories
The duration of
sensory memory
varies for the
different senses.
Iconic
0.5 sec. long
Echoic
3-4 sec. long
Hepatic
< 1 sec. long
Encoding

Effortful Processing
 requires attention and conscious
effort
Effortful Processing
© Bananastock/ Alamy
Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit
Committing novel
information to memory
requires effort just like
learning a concept from a
textbook. Such
processing leads to
durable and accessible
memories.
Rehearsal
Effortful learning
usually requires
rehearsal or conscious
repetition.
Hermann Ebbinghaus
(1850-1909)
http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de
Ebbinghaus studied
rehearsal by using
nonsense syllables:
TUV YOF GEK XOZ
Encoding

Ebbinghaus used nonsense
syllables
 TUV ZOF GEK WAV
 the more times practiced on Day 1, the
fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2

Spacing Effect
 distributed practice yields better longterm retention than massed practice
Rehearsal
The more times the
nonsense syllables were
practiced on Day 1,
the fewer repetitions
were required to
remember them on Day
2.
Memory Effects
1.
2.
3.
Next-in-line-Effect: When you are so
anxious about being next that you cannot
remember what the person just before you
in line says, but you can recall what other
people around you say.
Spacing Effect: We retain information better
when we rehearse over time.
Serial Position Effect: When your recall is
better for first and last items on a list, but
poor for middle items.
Spacing Effect
Distributing rehearsal (spacing effect) is better than
practicing all at once. Robert Frost’s poem could be
memorized with fair ease if spread over time.
ACQUAINTED WITH THE NIGHT
Robert Frost
I have been one acquainted with the night.
I have walked out in rain — and back in rain.
I have outwalked the furthest city light.
……
Serial Position Effect
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
TUV
ZOF
GEK
WAV
XOZ
TIK
FUT
WIB
SAR
POZ
REY
GIJ
Better recall
Poor recall
Better recall
Encoding

Mnemonics
 memory aids
 especially those techniques that use vivid
imagery and organizational devices
Encoding

Method of Loci
 As an aid to memorizing lengthy speeches,
ancient Greek orators would visualize
themselves moving through familiar locations

Peg Word System
 Memorize a jingle: “one is a bun, two is a
shoe…”
Method of Loci
List of Items
Imagined Locations
Charcoal
Pens
Bed Sheets
Hammer
.
.
.
Rug
Backyard
Study
Bedroom
Garage
.
.
.
Living Room
Link Method
List of Items
Newspaper
Shaving cream
Pen
Umbrella
.
.
.
Lamp
Involves forming a mental image of items to be
remembered in a way that links them together.
Fig. 7-29a, p. 292
Organizing Information for Encoding
Break down complex information into broad
concepts and further subdivide them into
categories and subcategories.
1. Chunking
2. Hierarchy
Encoding

Chunking
 organizing items into familiar, manageable units
 like horizontal organization--1776149218121941
 often occurs automatically
Chunking
Acronyms are another way of chunking
information to remember it.
HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
PEMDAS = Parentheses, Exponent, Multiply, Divide, Add, Subtract
ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
Chunking
Organizing items into a familiar, manageable unit.
Try to remember the numbers below.
1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
If you are well versed with American history,
chunk the numbers together and see if you
can recall them better. 1776 1492 1812
1941.
Chunking
The capacity of the working memory may be
increased by “Chunking.”
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
FBI
TWA CIA
4 chunks
IBM
Chunking
A friend gave you this list of ingredients for
muffins. How might you rearrange the
ingredients so you can remember them better?
salt, eggs, raisins, wheat flour, honey, milk,
margarine, nuts, white flour, baking
powder, baking soda
Try dividing (chunking) the ingredients into dry
ingredients and liquid (or wet) ingredients.
Dry Ingredients
salt
nuts
raisins
white flour
wheat flour
baking soda
baking powder
Wet or Liquid
Ingredients
eggs
milk
honey
margarine
Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into broad
concepts and further subdivided into categories
and subcategories.
Storing Memories in the Brain
1.
Storage-retain in the brain; file system of
memories; hard drive of the mind
Storage:
Long-Term Memory

How does storage work?
 Karl Lashley (1950)
 rats learn maze
 lesion cortex
 test memory

Synaptic changes
 Long-term Potentiation
 increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief,
rapid stimulation
Synaptic Changes
Both Photos: From N. Toni et al., Nature, 402, Nov. 25 1999. Courtesy of Dominique Muller
Long-Term Potentiation
(LTP) refers to synaptic
enhancement after
learning (Lynch, 2002).
An increase in
neurotransmitter release
or receptors on the
receiving neuron indicates
strengthening of
synapses.
Biological Basis of Memory
Karl Lashley searched
for a localized memory
trace or engram
Found that mazelearning in rats was
distributed throughout
the brain
Synaptic Changes
In Aplysia, Kandel and Schwartz (1982) showed
that serotonin release from neurons increased
after conditioning.
Photo: Scientific American
Fig. 7-26, p. 288
Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories
Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can
consciously know and declare (conscious recall). Implicit
memory involves our memories of how to do things;
procedures (without conscious recall).
Hippocampus
Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic
system that processes explicit memories.
Weidenfield & Nicolson archives
Fig. 7-23, p. 286
Cerebellum
Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain
that processes implicit memories.
Biological Basis of Memory



Amnesia— severe memory loss
Retrograde amnesia— inability to
remember past episodic information;
common after head injury; need for
consolidation
Anterograde amnesia— inability to
form new memories; related to
hippocampus damage
Anterograde Amnesia
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient
Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the
operation but cannot make new memories. We call
this anterograde amnesia.
Anterograde
Amnesia
(HM)
Memory Intact
No New Memories
Surgery
Implicit Memory
HM is unable to make new memories that are
declarative (explicit), but he can form new
memories that are procedural (implicit).
A
B
C
HM learned the Tower of Hanoi (game) after his surgery. Each time
he plays it, he is unable to remember the fact that he has already
played the game.
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval refers to getting information out of
the memory store.
Spanky’s Yearbook Archive
Spanky’s Yearbook Archive
Measures of Memory
In recognition, the person must identify an item
amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test
requires recognition.)
1. Name the capital of France.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Brussels
Rome
London
Paris
Measures of Memory
In recall, the person must retrieve information
using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test requires
recall.)
1. The capital of France is ______.
Measures of Memory
In relearning, the individual shows how much
time (or effort) is saved when learning material
for the second time.
List
List
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite
…
Silk
Frog
Ring
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite
…
Silk
Frog
Ring
It took 10 trials
to learn this list
1 day later
Saving
It took 5 trials
to learn the list
Relearning
Trials
X 100
Relearning
Trials
Original
Trials
10 5
X 100
10
50%
Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of
associations. These associations are like
anchors that help retrieve memory.
water
smell
fire
smoke
Fire Truck
heat
truck
red
hose
Priming (William James)
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of
associations, you must first activate one of the
strands that leads to it. This process is called
priming.
Context Effects
Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they
learned the list underwater, while they recall more
words on land if they learned that list on land
(Godden & Baddeley, 1975).
Fred McConnaughey/ Photo Researchers
Context Effects
After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants
most strongly respond when retested in the same
context rather than in a different context (Butler &
Rovee-Collier, 1989).
Déja Vu
Déja Vu means “I've experienced this before.” Cues
from the current situation may unconsciously
trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience.
© The New Yorker Collection, 1990. Leo Cullum from
cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved
Context Effects

Deja Vu (French)--already seen
 cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger


retrieval of an earlier similar experience
"I've experienced this before."
Mood-congruent Memory
 tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with


one’s current mood
memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues
State-dependent Memory
 what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or
depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same
state
Forgetting
An inability to retrieve information due to
poor encoding, storage, or retrieval.
Encoding Failure
We cannot remember what we do not
encode.
Which penny is real?
Retrieval Failure
Although the information is retained in the
memory store, it cannot be accessed.
Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon.
Given a cue (What makes blood cells red?) the subject
says the word begins with an H (hemoglobin).
Interference
Learning some new information
may disrupt retrieval of other information.
Forgetting as
Interference

Learning some items may disrupt
retrieval of other information
 Proactive (forward acting) Interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of
new information
 Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference
disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old
information
Motivated Forgetting
Motivated Forgetting:
People unknowingly
revise their memories.
Culver Pictures
Repression: A defense
mechanism that banishes
anxiety-arousing
thoughts, feelings, and
memories from
consciousness.
Sigmund Freud
Forgetting


Forgetting can
occur at any
memory stage
As we process
information, we
filter, alter, or
lose much of it
Memory Construction
While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in
missing pieces of information to make our recall
more coherent.
Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading
information into one's memory of an event.
Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer:
Memory Experiment and Hypothesis

Hypothesis: People will remember a car accident
differently if given different language cues (words) about
the accident
Loftus and Palmer: Methodology



Students watched a film of two cars colliding
Collision was moderate with no broken glass
Different students asked different questions: hit, smashed,
collided, bumped, contacted
Loftus and Palmer: Results


VERB
MEAN ESTIMATE OF SPEED (MPH)
Smashed
40.8
Collided
39.3
Bumped
38.1
Hit
34.0
Contacted
31.8
People reported the fastest speeds if the researchers had
used the word “smashed” in the question
From fastest to slowest reported speeds: smashed,
collided, bumped, hit, and contacted groups
Loftus and Palmer: Results


One week later, subjects were asked if they had seen
broken glass
32% of subjects asked the “smashed” question said yes;
14% of subjects asked the “hit” question said yes
Loftus and Palmer: Results and
Implications


People remember things differently depending on the
language used to describe an event (e.g., “smashed”
versus “hit”)
Misinformation effect
Misinformation and Imagination Effects
Eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories when
questioned about the event.
Depiction of the actual accident.
Misinformation
Group A: How fast were the cars going
when they hit each other?
Group B: How fast were the cars going
when they smashed into each
other?
Memory Construction
A week later they were asked: Was there any
broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported
more broken glass than Group A (hit).
Broken Glass? (%)
50
40
32
30
20
14
10
0
Group A (hit)
Group B (Smashed into)
Verb
Loftus Results
Word Used
in Question
smashed
collided
bumped
hit
contacted
Average
Speed Estimate
41 m.p.h.
39 m.p.h.
38 m.p.h.
34 m.p.h.
32 m.p.h.
Constructed Memories
Loftus’ research shows that if false memories (lost at
the mall or drowned in a lake) are implanted in
individuals, they construct (fabricate) their memories.
Memory Construction


We filter information and fill in missing
pieces
Source Amnesia
 attributing to the wrong source an event that
we experienced, heard about, read about, or
imagined (misattribution)
Discerning True & False Memories
Just like true perception and illusion, real
memories and memories that seem real are
difficult to discern.
© Simon Niedsenthal
When students formed a happy or angry memory of
morphed (computer blended) faces, they made
the (computer assisted) faces (a), either happier or (b) angrier.
False Memories
Repressed or Constructed?
Some adults actually do forget childhood
episodes of abuse.
False Memory Syndrome
A condition in which a person’s identity and
relationships center around a false but strongly
believed memory of a traumatic experience,
which is sometimes induced by well-meaning
therapists.
Children’s Eyewitness Recall
Children’s eyewitness recall can be unreliable if
leading questions are posed. However, if
cognitive interviews are neutrally worded, the
accuracy of their recall increases. In cases of
sexual abuse, this usually suggests a lower
percentage of abuse.
Memories of Abuse
Are memories of abuse repressed or
constructed?
Many psychotherapists believe that early
childhood sexual abuse results in repressed
memories.
However, other psychologists question such
beliefs and think that such memories may be
constructed.
Improving Memory
1.
2.
3.
4.
Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall.
Spend more time rehearsing or actively
thinking about the material.
Make material personally meaningful.
Use mnemonic devices:



associate with peg words — something already
stored
make up a story
chunk — acronyms
Improving Memory
5.
6.
7.
Activate retrieval cues — mentally recreate the
situation and mood.
Recall events while they are fresh — before
you encounter misinformation.
Minimize interference:
1.
2.
Test your own knowledge.
Rehearse and then determine what you do not yet
know.
© LWA-Dann Tardiff/ Corbis