Download The Neurobiology of Learning and Memory

You Are Your Memory
Your memory stores:
• Your personal experiences
• Emotions
• Preferences/dislikes
• Motor skills
• World knowledge
• Language
Fundamentally, you as a person are derived from
experiences that have been stored in your
nervous system.
This is possible only because your brain has
developed the capacity to store information.
Definition
“Learning is the process of acquiring new
information, while memory refers to the persistence
of learning in a state that can be revealed at a later
time” (Squire, 1987).
Hermann Ebbinghaus
Figure 1.3 Single-trace and dual-trace theories of Ebbinghaus’s forgetting
curve
Historical Foundations: The Golden Age
Théodule Ribot proposed that during disease of the brain,
memories disappear in an orderly fashion
Ribot’s Law: Ribot also proposed that old memories are more
resistant to disease/disruption than new memories.
Historical Foundations: The Golden Age
Serge Korsakoff
Described the syndrome produced by
alcohol now called Korsakoff’s Syndrome.
The syndrome is characterized by what we
would now call anterograde amnesia—the
inability to acquire new memories.
During the late stages there is also
retrograde amnesia—the loss of memories
acquired before the onset of the disease.
He also proposed that amnesia could be
due to either storage failure or retrieval
failure.
Historical Foundations: The Golden Age
William James proposed that memories emerge in
stages. An after image is supported by a very shortlasting trace, then replaced by the primary trace that
also decays. Secondary memory is viewed as the
reservoir of enduring memory trace that with an
appropriate retrieval cue can be recalled.
Historical Foundations: The Golden Age
Santiago Ramón y Cajal
The Neuron Doctrine: The
idea that the brain is made
up of discrete cells called
nerve cells, each delimited by
an external membrane.
The Synaptic Plasticity
hypothesis: The idea that the
strength of a synaptic
connection can be modified
by experience.
Figure 1.8 Pavlovian conditioning is widely used to study learning and memory
in animals
Ivan P. Pavlov
Developed the fundamental
methodology for studying
associative learning in animals.
Historical Foundations: The Golden Age
Edward L. Thorndike
Developed the first methodology for studying how
we learn about the consequences of our actions
= Instrumental conditioning (Thorndikian
conditioning)
The Law of Effect: The correct behavior was
learned because the consequences of successful
outcome (a satisfying state) strengthened
connections between the stimulus (S) and correct
response (R) and the consequence of
unsuccessful responses (annoying state) weaken
the competing and wrong S–R connections.
Figure 1.9 Edward L. Thorndike invented the methodology for studying
instrumental learning
WHO WAS…
• Herman Ebbinghaus?
• Theodule Ribot?
• Serge Korsakoff?
• William James?
• Santiago Ramón y Cajal?
• Ivan P. Pavlov?
• Edward L. Thorndike?
DEFINITIONS
• Declarative memory (explicit)
 Knowledge to which we have conscious
access, including personal and world
knowledge
• Nondeclarative memory (implicit)
 Knowledge to which we typically have no
concious access, such as motor and
cognitive skills
DEFINITIONS
• Episodic memory
 Stored information about events in one’s life,
including information about when they
happened and what happened
• Semantic memory
 A category of memory that is believed to
support memory for facts and the ability to
extract generalizations across experiences
DEFINITIONS
• Procedural memory
 A form of non-declarative memory that
involves the learning of a variety of motor
skills and cognitive skills (e.g., how to ride a
bike or how to read)
• Perceptual representation system
 A courier network that delivers sensory
information to the CNS to control muscles of
the body; anything outside the brain and
spinal cord
TYPES OF MEMORY
Type of memory
Time course Capacity
Conscious Awareness? Mechanisms of Loss
Sensory
ms-s
high
no
Primarily Decay
Short-term and working
s-min
limited
yes
Primarily Decay
Long-term nondeclarative
days-years
high
no
Primarily Interference
Long-term declarative
days-years
high
yes
Primarily Interference
*TABLE 8.1 page 314
W. W. Norton
• Declarative or explicit memory is
knowledge that
• a. one can access consciously.
• b. one cannot access consciously.
• c. is a form of sensory memory.
• d. is a form of short-term memory.
• Declarative or explicit memory is
knowledge that
• a. one can access consciously.
• b. one cannot access consciously.
• c. is a form of sensory memory.
• d. is a form of short-term memory.
• Barbara remembers that Madrid is the
capital of Spain, but she has no idea when
or where she acquired this knowledge. Her
________ memory is accurate, but her
________ memory is incomplete.
• a. semantic / episodic
• b. nonassociative / semantic
• c. episodic / implicit
• d. explicit / implicit
• Barbara remembers that Madrid is the
capital of Spain, but she has no idea when
or where she acquired this knowledge. Her
________ memory is accurate, but her
________ memory is incomplete.
• a. semantic / episodic
• b. nonassociative / semantic
• c. episodic / implicit
• d. explicit / implicit
W. W. Norton
W. W. Norton
W. W. Norton
THE ATKINSON AND SHRIFFINMODAL MODEL OF MEMORY
Baddeley, A., and Hitch, G., Working Memory, in Bower, G.H. (Ed.), The Psychology of Learning and
Motivation, Vol. 8. New York, Academic Press, 1974, pp. 47–89. Adapted by permission of the publisher.
• ________ is the process of acquiring new
information, whereas ________ is the trace
that results from this process and can be
revealed at a later time.
• a. Recall / recognition
• b. Recognition / recall
• c. Learning / memory
• d. Memory / learning
• ________ is the process of acquiring new
information, whereas ________ is the trace
that results from this process and can be
revealed at a later time.
• a. Recall / recognition
• b. Recognition / recall
• c. Learning / memory
• d. Memory / learning
• ___ refers to the processing of incoming
information to be stored.
• a. Retrieval
• b. Recall
• c. Encoding
• d. Explicit memory
• ___ refers to the processing of incoming
information to be stored.
• a. Retrieval
• b. Recall
• c. Encoding
• d. Explicit memory
• The encoding of information to be stored involves
two stages: ________, in which inputs in sensory
buffers and sensory analysis stages are
registered, and then ________, in which a
stronger representation for storage is created.
• a.
consolidation / storage
• b.
storage / retrieval
• c.
retrieval / acquisition
• d.
acquisition / consolidation
• The encoding of information to be stored involves
two stages: ________, in which inputs in sensory
buffers and sensory analysis stages are
registered, and then ________, in which a
stronger representation for storage is created.
• a.
consolidation / storage
• b.
storage / retrieval
• c.
retrieval / acquisition
• d.
acquisition / consolidation
• Research using the mismatch field (MMF),
which is the magnetic equivalent of the
mismatch negativity (MMN), has suggested
that auditory sensory memory has a
duration of about
• a. 10 milliseconds.
• b. 100 milliseconds.
• c. 1 second.
• d. 10 seconds.
• Research using the mismatch field (MMF),
which is the magnetic equivalent of the
mismatch negativity (MMN), has suggested
that auditory sensory memory has a
duration of about
• a. 10 milliseconds.
• b. 100 milliseconds.
• c. 1 second.
• d. 10 seconds.
• According to the modal model of memory,
information that is currently held within
short-term memory originates from
• a. sensory memory.
• b. working memory.
• c. both sensory and working memory.
• d. neither sensory nor working memory.
• According to the modal model of memory,
information that is currently held within
short-term memory originates from
• a. sensory memory.
• b. working memory.
• c. both sensory and working memory.
• d. neither sensory nor working memory.
• Which of the following best describes the
flow of information in the Atkinson and
Shiffrin modal model of memory?
• a. Short-term storage → long-term storage →
sensory memory
• b. Short-term storage → sensory memory →
long-term storage
• c. Sensory memory→short-term storage
→long-term storage
• d. Sensory memory→long-term storage
→short-term storage
• Which of the following best describes the
flow of information in the Atkinson and
Shiffrin (1968) modal model of memory?
• a. Short-term storage → long-term storage →
sensory memory
• b. Short-term storage → sensory memory →
long-term storage
• c. Sensory memory→short-term storage
→long-term storage
• d. Sensory memory→long-term storage
→short-term storage
• Which of the following statements
concerning types of memory in the modal
model of memory is FALSE?
• a.
At any moment, there is more information in sensory
memory than in short-term memory.
• b. Some contents of sensory memory are selected via
attention and next processed in long-term memory.
• c. Sensory memory has a briefer duration than shortterm memory.
• d. Long-term memory has a longer duration than
sensory memory.
• Which of the following statements
concerning types of memory in the modal
model of memory is FALSE?
• a.
At any moment, there is more information in sensory
memory than in short-term memory.
• b. Some contents of sensory memory are selected via
attention and next processed in long-term memory.
• c. Sensory memory has a briefer duration than shortterm memory.
• d. Long-term memory has a longer duration than
sensory memory.
• The term ________ refers to a limitedcapacity store that not only retains
information over the short term
(maintenance) but also permits the
performance of mental operations with the
contents of this store (manipulation).
• a. working memory
• b. short-term memory
• c. sensory memory
• d. long-term memory
• The term ________ refers to a limitedcapacity store that not only retains
information over the short term
(maintenance) but also permits the
performance of mental operations with the
contents of this store (manipulation).
• a. working memory
• b. short-term memory
• c. sensory memory
• d. long-term memory
Henry Gustav Molaison (1926 – 2008)
HOW DO WE KNOW LONG-TERM MEMORIES MUST
BE CONSOLIDATED OVER TIME?
Memory Systems in the Brain
LTP, not the expression of LTP
The Polar Opposite of Long-Term Potentiation
Figure 3.1 First messengers carry information between neurons; second
messengers carry the signal into the neuron
The Dynamic Life of AMPA Receptors
• Classical conditioning is an example of a
specific type of ________ memory.
• a. priming
• b. semantic
• c. episodic
• d. nondeclarative
• Classical conditioning is an example of a
specific type of ________ memory.
• a. priming
• b. semantic
• c. episodic
• d. nondeclarative
• ________ does NOT affect behavior
consciously and can be measured only
indirectly.
• a. Nondeclarative memory
• b. Declarative memory
• c. Episodic memory
• d. Explicit memory
• ________ does NOT affect behavior
consciously and can be measured only
indirectly.
• a. Nondeclarative memory
• b. Declarative memory
• c. Episodic memory
• d. Explicit memory
• ________ is the improvement in
processing a stimulus as the result of
previously having been exposed to that
stimulus.
• a. Nonassociative learning
• b. Procedural learning
• c. Priming
• d. Conditioning
• ________ is the improvement in
processing a stimulus as the result of
previously having been exposed to that
stimulus.
• a. Nonassociative learning
• b. Procedural learning
• c. Priming
• d. Conditioning
• Deficits in memory as a function of brain
damage, disease, or psychological trauma
are known collectively as
• a. aphasia.
• b. agnosia.
• c. anomia.
• d. amnesia.
• Deficits in memory as a function of brain
damage, disease, or psychological trauma
are known collectively as
• a. aphasia.
• b. agnosia.
• c. anomia.
• d. amnesia.
• A 1957 study of patients who had undergone
removal of the medial temporal lobe for the
treatment of epilepsy suggested that
• a. the removal of either the right or the left
medial temporal lobe results in profound
amnesia.
• b. greater amnesia is associated with the
removal of the left medial temporal lobe.
• c. greater amnesia is associated with the
removal of the right medial temporal lobe.
• d. profound amnesia is associated only with
bilateral medial temporal lobe removal.
• A 1957 study of patients who had undergone
removal of the medial temporal lobe for the
treatment of epilepsy suggested that
• a. the removal of either the right or the left
medial temporal lobe results in profound
amnesia.
• b. greater amnesia is associated with the
removal of the left medial temporal lobe.
• c. greater amnesia is associated with the
removal of the right medial temporal lobe.
• d. profound amnesia is associated only with
bilateral medial temporal lobe removal.
• Which of the following would be the MOST
difficult for the famous Patient H.M. and other
patients with medial temporal lobe removal?
• a. Reading a string of numbers written on a
piece of paper
• b. Remembering a series of seven numbers for
20 seconds
• c. Learning the words for numbers in a foreign
language
• d. Improving in the ability to write numbers with
the nondominant hand
• Which of the following would be the MOST
difficult for the famous Patient H.M. and other
patients with medial temporal lobe removal?
• a. Reading a string of numbers written on a
piece of paper
• b. Remembering a series of seven numbers for
20 seconds
• c. Learning the words for numbers in a foreign
language
• d. Improving in the ability to write numbers with
the nondominant hand
• Which brain structure is located in the
medial temporal lobe and is of particular
importance in the formation of new longterm memories?
• a. The hypothalamus
• b. The colliculus
• c. The hippocampus
• d. The caudate
• Which brain structure is located in the
medial temporal lobe and is of particular
importance in the formation of new longterm memories?
• a. The hypothalamus
• b. The colliculus
• c. The hippocampus
• d. The caudate
• How are the cognitive (memory) deficits suffered
both by Patient H.M. and by people with
Korsakoff’s syndrome similar?
• a. Both suffer from severe retrograde amnesia
but not anterograde amnesia.
• b. Both suffer from severe anterograde
amnesia that is limited to declarative memory.
• c. Both suffer from severe working memory
deficits.
• d. Both suffer from brain damage related to
severe epilepsy.
• How are the cognitive (memory) deficits suffered
both by Patient H.M. and by people with
Korsakoff’s syndrome similar?
• a. Both suffer from severe retrograde amnesia
but not anterograde amnesia.
• b. Both suffer from severe anterograde
amnesia that is limited to declarative memory.
• c. Both suffer from severe working memory
deficits.
• d. Both suffer from brain damage related to
severe epilepsy.
• It appears that the medial temporal lobes and the
diencephalon are important in consolidating explicit longterm memories but are not themselves the storage sites
for this knowledge because
• a. most skills and habits acquired before injury of these
structures will remain intact.
• b. only priming and conditioning show signs of
impairment following damage to these structures.
• c. only nonassociative learning and priming show signs
of impairment following damage to these structures.
• d. most episodic and semantic memories acquired
before injury of these structures will remain intact.
• It appears that the medial temporal lobes and the
diencephalon are important in consolidating explicit longterm memories but are not themselves the storage sites
for this knowledge because
• a. most skills and habits acquired before injury of these
structures will remain intact.
• b. only priming and conditioning show signs of
impairment following damage to these structures.
• c. only nonassociative learning and priming show signs
of impairment following damage to these structures.
• d. most episodic and semantic memories acquired
before injury of these structures will remain intact.
• Long-term potentiation does NOT occur
unless the neurotransmitter ________ is
present in the synapse to bind to
postsynaptic NMDA receptors.
• a. GABA
• b. norepinephrine
• c. serotonin
• d. glutamate
• Long-term potentiation does NOT occur
unless the neurotransmitter ________ is
present in the synapse to bind to
postsynaptic NMDA receptors.
• a. GABA
• b. norepinephrine
• c. serotonin
• d. glutamate
• Imagine that a new drug is discovered that acts
by depleting the brain of free magnesium ions.
How would this drug affect long-term potentiation
(LTP)?
• a.
The amount of LTP would increase.
• b.
The amount of LTP would decrease.
• c.
The amount of LTP would not change.
• d. The amount of LTP would first decrease,
then increase.
• Imagine that a new drug is discovered that acts
by depleting the brain of free magnesium ions.
How would this drug affect long-term potentiation
(LTP)?
• a.
The amount of LTP would increase.
• b.
The amount of LTP would decrease.
• c.
The amount of LTP would not change.
• d. The amount of LTP would first decrease,
then increase.
• Which of the following statements is TRUE regarding the
role of NMDA receptors in mediating LTP in the brain?
• a. NMDA receptors are critical to inducing LTP but not
to maintaining LTP.
• b. NMDA receptors block LTP in the brain unless
magnesium ions are present.
• c. NMDA receptors are depolarized by the binding of
the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
• d.
NMDA receptors create LTP by transporting
magnesium ions from outside the cell into the cell.
• Which of the following statements is TRUE regarding the
role of NMDA receptors in mediating LTP in the brain?
• a. NMDA receptors are critical to inducing LTP but not
to maintaining LTP.
• b. NMDA receptors block LTP in the brain unless
magnesium ions are present.
• c. NMDA receptors are depolarized by the binding of
the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
• d.
NMDA receptors create LTP by transporting
magnesium ions from outside the cell into the cell.