Download memory - My CCSD

Memory
8-1
In Pursuit of Memory
8-2
In Pursuit of Memory
• Measuring Memory
• Models of Memory
8-3
Measuring Memory
• Explicit Memory: Conscious, intentional
recollection of an event or of an item of
information.
• Implicit Memory: Unconscious retention
in memory, as evidenced by the effect of
a previous experience or previously
encountered information on current
thoughts or actions.
8-4
Explicit Memory
• Recall: The ability to retrieve and
reproduce from memory previously
encountered material.
• Recognition: The ability to identify
previously encountered material.
8-5
Implicit Memory
• Priming: A method for measuring implicit
memory in which a person reads or listens to
information and is later tested to see whether
the information affects performance on another
type of task.
• Relearning: A method for measuring retention
that compares the time required to relearn
material with the time used in the initial
learning of the material.
8-6
The Three-Box Model
of Memory
Sensory Memory: Fleeting Impressions
Short-term Memory: Memory’s Scratch Pad
Long-term Memory: Final Destination
8-7
Three-Box Model of Memory
8-8
Sensory Memory:
Fleeting Impressions
• Sensory Memory: A memory system that
momentarily preserves extremely
accurate images of sensory information.
• Pattern Recognition: The identification of
a stimulus on the basis of information
already contained in long-term memory.
8-9
Short-term Memory:
Memory’s Scratch Pad
• Short-Term Memory (STM): In the three-box
model of memory, a limited capacity memory
system involved in the retention of information
for brief periods; it is also used to hold
information retrieved from long-term memory
for temporary use.
• Chunk: A meaningful unit of information; it
may be composed of smaller units.
8-10
The Value of Chunking
• You have 5 seconds
to memorize as much
as you can
• Then, draw an empty
chess board and
reproduce the
arrangement of
pieces
8-11
Long-term Memory:
Final Destination
• Procedural memories:
– Memories for
performance of actions
or skills.
– “Knowing how”
• Declarative memories:
– Memories of facts, rules,
concepts, and events;
includes semantic and
episodic memory.
– “Knowing that”
8-12
Long-term Memory:
Final Destination
• Semantic memories:
– General knowledge,
including facts, rules,
concepts, and
propositions.
• Episodic memories:
– Personally experienced
events and the contexts
in which they occurred.
8-13
Conceptual Grid
8-14
Serial-Position Effect
• The tendency for
recall of first and last
items on a list to
surpass recall of
items in the middle
of the list.
8-15
Working Memory Model
• Originated by Alan Baddeley
• Most widely accepted model to date
• Outlines a third portion of memory called
the “working memory”
8-16
Working Memory
•
•
•
•
Visiospatial sketchpad
Phonological loop
Central executor
Episodic buffer
8-17
How We Remember
• Effective Encoding
• Rehearsal
• Mnemonics
8-18
Encoding
• In order to remember
material well, we
must encode it
accurately in the first
place.
• Some kinds of
information, such as
material in a college
course, require
effortful, as opposed
to automatic,
encoding.
8-19
Rehearsal
• Rehearsal of information keeps it in
short-term memory and increases the
chances of long-term retention.
8-20
Rehearsal
• Maintenance Rehearsal: Rote repetition
of material in order to maintain its
availability in memory.
• Elaborative Rehearsal: Association of
new information with already stored
knowledge and analysis of the new
information to make it memorable.
8-21
Mnemonics
• Mnemonics can also enhance retention
by promoting elaborative encoding and
making material meaningful.
• However, for ordinary memory tasks,
complex memory tricks are often
ineffective or even counterproductive.
8-22
Semantic memory
• The storage of general world knowledge
• The oldest portion of memory
(animalistic)
8-23
Episodic memory
• Memory of personal experienced events
or episodes
• Research shows it is a newer portion of
the memory system (evolutionarily
speaking)
8-24
Episodic memory-components
Made of three main requirements
• self
• subjectively sensed time.
• autonoetic awareness
8-25
Self
• Gallup mirror test – the ability to
recognize self separate from the rest of
the world.
• The idea of self extremely important to
place “self” into an environment (current
or past)
8-26
Time
• The understanding that now is now,
tomorrow will be tomorrow, and
yesterday was the past.
• Time allows for planning, but also a map
of the past, and even the future. Once
you have a map you can mark your
place on it
8-27
Autonoetic self–awareness
• The idea of self, time, and your position
of yourself during a past time.
• The key is that you realize that while
“remembering” yourself in the past you
understand that you are still in the
present.
8-28
KC Study
• Extremely important to showing the
existence of two memory systems.
• Suffered brain trauma, that erased the
episodic memory.
• Could remember new information learned,
but failed to recall where he learned it.
• Showing he could obtain and access
semantic memories, but not episodic.
8-29
Memory and the Power of
Suggestion
8-30
The Manufacture of Memory
• Memory is selective.
• Recovering a memory is not playing a
videotape
– Memory involves inferences that fill in gaps
in recall.
– We are often unaware we have made such
inferences.
• Source Amnesia: The inability to distinguish
what you originally experienced from what you
heard or were told later about an event.
8-31
The Conditions of
Confabulation
• Confabulation: Confusion of an event that happened to
someone else with one that happened to you, or a belief
that you remember something when it never actually
happened.
• Confabulation is most likely when:
– you have thought about the event many times;
– the image of the event contains many details;
– the event is easy to imagine;
– you focus on emotional reactions to the event rather
than what actually happened.
8-32
Memory and the Power of
Suggestion
• The Eyewitness on Trial
• Children’s Testimony
• Memory Under Hypnosis
8-33
The Eyewitness on Trial
• The reconstructive nature of memory makes
memory vulnerable to suggestion.
• Eyewitness testimony is especially vulnerable
to error when:
– the suspects ethnicity differs from that of the
witness;
– when leading questions are put to witnesses;
– when the witnesses are given misleading
information.
8-34
Misleading Information Study
• Misleading information from other
sources can alter what witnesses
report.
• Students were shown a picture of a
man with straight hair, but heard a
description that mentioned curly
hair.
• When the students were asked to
reconstruct the face, a third added
curly hair.
8-35
Children’s Testimony
• If asked if a visitor
committed acts that had
not occurred, few 4-6
year olds said yes.
– 30% of 3-year olds
said yes
• When investigators used
techniques taken from
real child-abuse
investigations, most
children said yes.
Social Pressure, False Allegations
8-36
Memory Under Hypnosis
• Hypnosis: A procedure in which the practitioner
suggests changes in sensations, perceptions,
thoughts, feelings, or behavior of the subject,
who cooperates by altering his or her normal
cognitive functioning.
• Errors and pseudomemories are so common
under hypnosis that the APA opposes use of
hypnosis-based testimony in courts of law; few
courts allow it.
8-37
Why We Forget
8-38
The Fading Flashbulb
• Even flashbulb memories, emotionally
powerful memories that seem
particularly vivid, are often embellished
or distorted and tend to become less
accurate over time.
8-39
Decay
• Decay Theory: The theory that
information in memory eventually
disappears if it is not accessed; it applies
more to short-term than to long-term
memory.
8-40
Interference
• Retroactive Interference:
Forgetting that occurs
when recently learned
material interferes with
the ability to remember
similar material stored
previously.
• Proactive Interference:
Forgetting that occurs
when previously stored
material interferes with
the ability to remember
similar, more recently
learned material.
8-41
Cue-dependent Forgetting
• Cue-Dependent Forgetting: The inability
to retrieve information stored in memory
because of insufficient cues for recall.
• State-Dependent Memory: The tendency
to remember something when the
rememberer is in the same physical or
mental state as during the original
learning or experience.
8-42
Childhood Amnesia:
The Missing Years
• Childhood Amnesia: The inability to remember
events and experiences that occurred during
the first two or three years of life.
• Cognitive explanations:
– Lack of sense of self
– Impoverished encoding
– A focus on the routine
– Different ways of thinking about the world
8-43
Memory and Narrative: The
Stories of Our Lives
• A person's narrative 'life story' organizes the
events of his or her life and gives them
meaning.
• Narratives change as people build up a store of
episodic memories, and life stories are, to some
degree, works of interpretation and
imagination.
• The central themes of our stories can guide
recall and influence our judgments of people
and events.
8-44