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Bio 250 – Human Anatomy
• Lecture – M W – 12:30 pm- 1:45 pm
• All exams in the laboratory [except the lecture final]
• Access to the Lab – Campus security list
 Do not remove any study aids from the lab
• Web site:
http://www.csub.edu/~ddodenhoff/anatomy/anatomy.h
tml
• WEBCT: Login from the web page of main csub page [ do
not ignore this resource, the webct page will contain all
lecture and lab supplemental material]
• http://www.csub.edu/webct/
A few words about anatomy
• Too much information?
• Standardize introductory course
• More new information than might be expected
for a typical course [depending on a student’s
biology background]
• Laboratory terms less than possible in order
to emphasize anatomy concepts
How do we learn
[or more importantly
memorize information]?
• Memorize - to study until it is easy to remember – for
example: "Below is an addition table that you should
memorize”
• Memory- the cognitive processes whereby past
experience is remembered; "he can do it from memory"
• Learning - The process by which relatively permanent
changes occur in behavioral potential as a result of
experience.
Information Processing: Memory
Types of Memory
Short-term memory
Working memory
Long-term memory
Short-Term Memory
• Limited in the amount of information Unless information is processed the
memory lasts only 15-30 seconds
 Remember the following sequence
–red, blue, green, eleven, yellow, rot, green, blue, two, white
Write down the sequence
• Was the first in the sequence
Blue?
No
Were there any unfamiliar terms in the list?
You are more likely to remember information
that is familiar than unfamiliar [unless there is
only one unfamiliar fact or item]. Therefore if
the amount of unfamiliar information is
increased your ability to recall the information
using short term memory decreases
Working Memory
• Is the memory used while
recalling short-term memory
• How many in the
sequence do you have in order to associate old
memory with new memories
correct?
• Requires a previous
association relative to the new
information inorder to
process the information
red, blue, green, eleven, yellow,
rot, green, blue, two, white
How much information will end
up in Long Term Memory?
This figure shows the sequence for memories to be encoded into
long term memory. Notice that items in short term memory can not
be encoded into long term memory without processing the
information. This block between short term memory and long term
memory is why you do not recall [retrieve memories] every stimulus
relayed by the senses during a given event.
Where is memory stored?
How do we store it and retrieve
memories?
A stimulus triggers the firing of
neurons in a particular sequence
The firing neurons relay the stimulus and
trigger a further characteristic neural firing
pattern within a network of neurons. To
maintain the pattern for memory recall
many associations need to be encoded
within the neural network
So if the neurons record the information in long-term
memory, why can I not remember or remember all the
information correctly [exactly as it was encoded?
2
3
Similar memory
1
The storage of information is similar to a pattern of
highways interconnecting storage areas : broken
connections or misdirected connections may lead
to an inability to correctly recall information
How to increase the
retrieval of memory
• Increase the depth of processing
 Memory is a by-product of
processing information
• Increase the amount of semantic
encoding
Three types of encoding
• Structurally encoding would be
like remembering the number of
letters or how the word appears
The semantic
encoding of
information is
the type of
encoding
students want
to increase
• Phonemically – how the word
sounds when pronounced
• Semantically- associate meaning
to the word and the context
associated with the word use.
Methods of Semantic encoding
• Elaboration- linking the information with other information
incorporated at the same time or information you already
know---demonstrations of a concept [this is the type of
encoding that incorporates the smell of a room while
studying or music associated with the meaning.
• Self-Referent ---Make the information personally relevant.
This requires associating the new information with
information you already know well and are able to recall
easily
• Visual Imagery-- using visual imagery to represent the term
or concept. This would be a diagram or illustration that
summarizes the information
Why is self-referent the
most effective encoding?
• Example:
 Instead of rote memorizing the
hypothalamus, hippocampus,
and amygdala are three
structures in the limbic system
of the brain
 “…you could think about the limbic
system’s involvement in emotions,
memory, and motivation by constructing a
simple story.
 ‘ I knew it was lunchtime because my
hypothalamus told me I was hungry,
thirsty, and cold. My hipppocampus
helped me remember a new restaurant that
opened on campus, but when I got there I
had to wait in line and my amygdala
reacted with anger’
What factors will affect your understanding and
proficiency of the course material?
• Prior experience with the course material
• Time spent processing the course information –
more rehearsal the greater the proficiency in
recalling the course information
• Duration of time spent creating associations
between the context of the information and selfreferent associations.
Methods of Rehearsal
Outline all lectures
[the use of multiple types of rehearsal is more
effective than spending a long time on one type of
rehearsal i.e. 30 min study sessions for four days is
more effective than one 2 hour study session]
• For example outline the topics of
this tutorial: What were the topics
of today’s lecture?
 Requirements for the course
 How is memory encoded
 Efficient methods of encoding
information that increase memory
retrieval
Under each topic identify the facts
associated with each topic.
• These do not have to be detailed accounts
 How is memory encoded?
 Network associations
 Types of memory?
 Categories of representation?
 Ways of encoding semantic information?
• Identify any terms that do not make sense or you can
not remember; this exercise will also help identify
information that is new and information that is easily
associated with older memories
Write out at least two
questions about the facts:
topic by topic
• Topic: Ways of encoding semantic memory.
 What is semantic encoding?
• Topic: remembering that memory is a
consequence of processing
 Was this a type of memory or method of
processing?
Do not just read what semantic memory is…..incorporate in the
definition a reference that is self-relevant ….If you do not ask
questions about the information while reviewing then you most likely
only be able to answer questions that ask if you recognize the
information …….and you may not be able to answer questions that
require you to extrapolate about the meaning of a term or concept.
For Example:
…you could write out the association………
arguing semantics is discussing the context or
meaning of a word…….
..therefore semantic encoding incorporates the
meaning of a term or information bit.
Notice that the meaning for semantic encoding has now been linked to a
meaning previously learned and easily recalled [of course you will have to
determine what is self-relevant]
So finally, based upon what you now know about
memory recall, What information is mostly likely
to be retain if you read the textbook once and
listen to lecture?
• Information you are able to easily incorporate
or associate with prior knowledge
• Therefore new information will require
rehearsal methods to properly encode into long
term memory
A
Take out a ½ sheet of paper and
write on it:
1. First and last Name
2. The Date : 9-15-04
3. The term given to foramen A.
4. The term given to bone B.
B
Example associations
for lab material
• Memorizing structures without associations
reduces your ability to recall a specific structure
• Identifying the parts of humerus is difficult if you
try to memorize the greater and lesser tubercles
and medial and lateral epicondyles without
associating these structures with a familiar
location……However the task of memorizing these
structures is simplified if you associate the
tubercles with the shoulder end of the humerus
and the epicondyles with the elbow end of the
humerus [notice also that elbow and epi start with
e….which is an additional association that will help
you recall the 1st association]
Examples of associations for lectures
• Outline lecture topics into sections of similar topics; this visual
organization of information will aid in recalling the several associated
facts required to answer many types of multiple choice questions. For
example, there are four types of cells found in bone and they are given
similar sounding terms but serve different functions. There are several
different types of questions that can be asked about these cells that
would require more than a rote memorization of a single meaning. For
example osteoblasts are the cells responsible secreting the matrix within
bone tissue and osteoclasts are the cells responsible for breaking down
the bone matrix, however this definition would not be sufficient to
answer the following question:
To answer this question you would need to
associate with the osteoblasts and matrix
that the matrix is composed of collagen
fibers and hydroxyapatites and also you
would have to know that mesenchyme
Collagen is secreted by which of the following?
cells have to become osteoblasts before the
cells secrete any matrix fibers. This type
A. Mesenchyme cells
B. Osteoblasts of a question is designed to test whether a
student understands the meaning of terms
and will retain some of that understanding
C. Osteoclasts
D.
after completing the course. Memorized
Hydroxyapatites
definitions are not usually retained in long
term memory without additional encoding
E. A and B are correct
of meaning of terms in multiple contexts
[associated to other similar topics]