Download Or. . . Taking In Information

I shall always
remember my
cool psychology
teacher at OHS
Memory:
The storage and
retrieval of what
has been learned
or experienced
As a retired officer in the
United States Army, I am,
and always have been,
proud of our nation and
the symbol of our nation,
our flag. As such, I have
always taken pride in
reciting the Pledge of
Allegiance. However,
listen now as I recite it in
an unusual way—a way I
first learned way back in
September, 1966.
Why am I able to remember
something I learned way back in
1966, and only recall once each
year?
Working as individuals, think back:
what is your earliest memory?
Next, think back and list 3 famous
“firsts” or significant events
in your early lives.
For example, for me: the JFK assassination on
Nov. 22, 1963; my first 880 win in track (April,
1967); my in-car driving test on Jan. 24, 1967; and
getting my Univ. of San Francisco acceptance letter
in April, 1969.
Iiiiiiiit’s time for YOUR
chapter project!!!!
Old,
bald,
jerk!!
I’d like to
use him
as a
tackling
dummy
at
practice.
Review one of the topics on
Simoncini’s Website and write a 1-2
page paper about it
Which one of you can describe
for me the information processing
model.
Human memory takes essentially
meaningless sensory information
(my voice) and changes it into meaningful
patterns that you can store and use later.
It is a cognitive understanding of memory.
Information is captured through a
person’s senses.
All transformed to impulses
so the nervous system can
process it. This action is
called: encoding.
a typical
SimonciniAs
is clearly
my
bonehead, sure
this
Encoding
mental superior-I’m
part is
difficult
for
he encodes
much
better
me.
than me.
One of 3 basic tasks of memory
Modifies information to fit our
memory systems
Select some stimulus
Identify distinctive features of input
Mentally label an experience to make it
meaningful
Encoding can be automatic
Memories for concepts: elaboration required—
a deliberate encoding effort
Encoding
Storage—retention of
encoded material
Retrieval
Hey! For smart people like
us, encoding, storing and
retrieving memories is no
problemo.
Alyssa is
SO HOT!
Some children, few adults,
have eidetic, or
After looking at
photographic, imagery. Michelangelo’s
Frankie’s
kinda
cute.
Creation for 30
seconds, I
remembered
every detail.
And they are. . .
This is
SO
Boring!
Memory Storage of inputs
Hey! My memory is like a bank
vault—it holds everything!
Sensory memory
Working memory (Short term)
Long Term memory
Memory Storage of inputs
Sensory memory
holds information
for only a second or so
The George Sperling Experiment
H
T
X
W
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A
M
J
B
N
P
The George Sperling Experiment
H
T
X
W
R
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M
J
B
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Top row: chime Middle: laser Bottom: drum
The George Sperling Experiment
H
T
X
W
R
V
A
M
J
B
N
P
Top row: chime Middle: laser Bottom: drum
The George Sperling Experiment
Partial report condition
Actual storage capacity
of sensory memory can
be 12 or more items—even
though all but 3 or 4 items
usually disappear from
sensory memory before
they enter consciousness.
Senses of sight and hearing
Hold inputs for fractions of
seconds before they disappear
No narrowing or analysis occurs
The five primary types of sensory
memory:
Iconic memory
Echoic memory
Tactile sensory memory
Olfactory sensory memory
Gustatory sensory memory
There is a multitude of inputs entering
our brains at any one time—how do we
discriminate into a manageable number?
No wonder my
head always
hurts!
I don’t want my Homie’s head
to hurt so much. How are
sensory inputs narrowed to a
manageable number.
Why, that’s easy,
Marge. Two ways:
selective attention
and feature
extraction.
Yeah! Your ability to
choose among the various
available inputs is called
selective attention.
According to Donald Broadbent,
we attend to only one of the
many channels of information
reaching us at any time. Our
minds filter out the other inputs
That’s why Bart tuned out Ms.
Krabapple’s teaching and
Otto’s clowning around while
he thought about Ms. Speers.
Yeah, kid. But don’t forget:
Anne Treisman later proposed
attenuation theory saying that
Broadbent’s filter suppressed
but did not eliminate other
channels—so other inputs are
not completely blocked out. A
lot of it has to do with how
interested you are in
something.
All right, then, so what is
feature extraction?
Mr. Burns, feature
extraction involves
locating the outstanding
characteristics of
incoming information.
Duh, is that like
remembering a person’s
name by remembering
certain things about
them—like their hair
color, eyes or height . . .
or that they belch a lot?
Exactly, Barney. For example, I
remember Mr. Simoncini by his
great physique.
That’s great, Lisa.
Now, we’ll have
experiments
about selective
attention and
feature extraction.
Working memory keeps
a thought as long as you
repeat it—about 20 seconds
Long-term memory
Man, that date
with the Sonora
cheerleader back
in 1965 was awful!
By the time information gets
to the short term memory (STM)
it has been analyzed,
identified, and simplified
for convenient storage
during a longer time
period.
Wow! This is mind
boggling: I can only hold
7 unrelated items at a
time. Right now, though,
I can only hold two.
STM is limited not only
in its duration, but in its
capacity as well.
Or. . .
STM:
Oh, this is so hard. Do we have
math homework? Is the
government test tomorrow? What
How?
time is Meagan’s party? Are we
TPing Simoncini’s house Friday or
Saturday? Did Mom say I had to
make dinner tonight? Aaaarrrgh!!
Being blonde is SO HARD!!!
For most, any more
than 7 items can’t
be stored. For some,
that number is less.
Let’s do an experiment on short-term
memory!
Take out some scratch paper. I’ll
read 8 groups of number lists. After
each one, I’ll say “Go” and you will
write the numbers in the correct
sequence.
2 8 3 1
7 4 1 3 9
4 9 7 2 1 5
5 1 8 3 9 2 6
1 9 5 6 3 4 7 2
3 6 2 5 1 9 7 4 8
6 1 5 4 9 8 3 2 8 7
8 9 3 1 6 4 2 7 5 1 3
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Model of Working
Memory (Baddeley’s update—2001)
One good STM technique
is called chunking
OK, that number was
847-3007. Let’s see,
847, OK, yeah; and
then 30 and then 07.
Yeah! 847-30, 07; 8473007. Got it! Peace
out!
Chunk items together as fast
as they come in to make
them easier to remember.
Hey, you psych
students. Let’s do an
experiment about
chunking!
No,
Blondie.
I said
chunking!
Not
chunks!
Gee!
Oh Professor,
please don’t
make me blow
chunks.
You have 20 seconds to
memorize this list:
Who wants to try?
SATCIAVHSMTVNATOVOLOHS
Oh, professor,
you’re so
mean. That
was too
hard—
especially for
a blonde like
ME!
Don’t feel bad, Kim. That was
hard for normal people, so it
must be impossible for a
blonde.
Now let’s try using
chunking! You have
another 20 seconds.
Now who wants to try?
SAT CIA VHS MTV NATO VOL OHS
Oh, me,
me, me,
me!!!
How does chunking help
expand short-term memory?
Can any of you share
other STM devices
that you have used?
Rehearsal
OK, her phone number
is 555-1212; that’s 555,
12, 12.
Must repeat things to
yourself, in your mind or out
loud. That process is
called: maintenance
rehearsal
Without rehearsal, STM lasts <20 sec.
Elaborative Rehearsal
OK. I’ve devised a phone number
so simple that even you two girls
can remember it: 1-800-H-O-T-J-AK-E. Get it? Hot Jake!
Poor
guy!
How
pathetic
!
This is
sad!
Information is actively connected
to knowledge already stored
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Model of Working
Memory (Baddeley’s update—2001)
Acoustic encoding
Information worth holding
on to must be rehearsed—with the
intent to learn—for it to be
transferred into the long-term
memory. Rehearsal without intent
to learn yields no transfer.
Rehears
e
I wanna
LTM
Long-term memory (LTM)
Where we store information
for future use
Not like a filing cabinet
Reconstruct what you
must recall when you
need it.
Involves all previouslydiscussed processes
Keep your cool, dude!
Wow! It’s cool
Sara may be a whiner,
sitting next to a
but she is HOT! And
REAL man, who
I’m
a huge football
does his OWN
Long-term
memory
(LTM)
star—I intercepted a
homework. I’m so
pass and scored
nervous, I can’t
against Sierra!.
pay attention to
the speaker.
Long-term memory (LTM)
Feature
extraction
turns sounds
into
recognizable
words.
Selective
attention
screens
out other
sounds
Words form in STM &
form meaningful
phrases & sentences
You will store
meanings of lines &
actions in LTM
Here’s an example of how things
get into our LTM. I’ve memorized
Rodney Dangerfield’s monologue
from ball dinner scene the 1980
movie Caddyshack. Listen.
Now, let’s see how close your
teacher came to what I really said.
Some Models of Memory
Endel Tulving (1972)
Procedural (implicit) memory
Does not require conscious
recollection to have past
learning or experiences
impact our performance
Tying a tie or a shoe lace
Some Models of Memory
Endel Tulving (1972)
Semantic memory = our
knowledge of language:
its words, rules &
and meanings.
Episodic memory = memory of
our own lives
Declarative (explicit) memory
episodic + semantic memories
The Limbic
System
Hippocampus
Amygdala
Here is a homework
assignment about
the flashbulb
memory
phenomenon
Memory
that centers
around a
specific,
important
or
surprising
event.
Flashbulb Memory
phenomenon: the memory is so
vivid that it represents a mental
snapshot. Example: for Babyboomers, the J. F. Kennedy
Assassination.
Ask one person about a major historic
event in their lifetimes. . .specifically
ask them if they can remember
EXACTLY what they were doing when
they heard the news.
Information
Information
Daniel Schacter:
Implicit memory:
Memory that can affect
your behavior, but which
you did not deliberately
learn or of which you
currently have no
awareness
Explicit memory involves awareness
George Harrison:
The Chiffons:
“My Sweet Lord”
“He’s So Fine”
Subconscious memory: implicit memory
Priming: procedure of providing cues that
stimulate memories without awareness of the
connection between the cue and the retrieved
memory.
We must find thousands of items
stored in our memories when
we need them.
The solution to
retrieval is
organization of
meaningful
information
What key point about how things
get into the long term memory do
my fellow authors and I want to
underscore?
To store new information in your LTM, you must
make it meaningful while it is in working memory.
Therefore you must associate new information
with things you already know.
Important to think of personal examples of
concepts you want to remember from class.
I recall that the perpetrator was a kind
of blonde female, about 5’7”, 85
pounds, and she drove this hecka big
pickup. I think she is a cheerleader at
OHS.
I’m SO
ashamed of
myself. . .
NOT!!!!
Recall is the act of reconstructing
information
Bruce, I know the answer to
that zinger question you just
asked. I recall it from
Simoncini’s lecture.
Involves knowledge,
attitudes and
expectations.
Seems to result from
an act of
reconstruction
Of the three suspects in the line up, I
recognize the one in the middle as the
one who got Simoncini’s house.
The human memory is organized
in such a way that makes
recognition easy.
pencils
dog
happy
sad
Hottie!!
Time
to get
up.
The process of recognition provides
insight into how the memory
stores information.
“A rose by any other
name would still
smell as sweet.”
Recognition process: a single item
of information may be “indexed”
under several headings.
Slender
Kind of blonde
About 5’7”
Drove a pick-up
Goes to OHS
Cheerleader
Recognition and recall are
measures of explicit memory
Relearning is a measure of
implicit memory—it comes more
naturally often without conscious
recollection
Ooooh. Let’s see.
I’ve done this before.
Do I push the 1 or
the area code first?
Oh yeah! Now that I’m here I
remember—it was pretty brutal,
wasn’t it?
Hey Pete. Do you
remember that trick
you pulled on
Pagano right here
sophomore year?
The Encoding Specificity
Principle:
Involves a situation where
the context affected the
way a memory was
encoded and stored—
influencing its retrieval
at a later time.
The more closely the
retrieval cues match the
form in which the
information was encoded,
the better the information
will be remembered
In evaluating your students, it is best to
use a variety of assessments.
Robert Bjork:
Students should be given assignments
that make them come to grips with the
material in many different ways rather than just
memorizing the material and parroting it back.
Technique builds more connections into the web
of associations into which a memory is
embedded, and the more connections there are,
the easier it becomes to cue a memory.
Mood congruent memory
I’ve had a poopie day so far!
A memory process that selectively
retrieves memories that match (and
are congruent with) one’s mood—the
kind of information we retrieve from
memory heavily depends on our
moods
Tip of the tongue phenomenon
What’s that lady’s name?
Darn! It’s right on the tip of
my tongue.
The inability to recall a word while
knowing that it is in memory.
Involves interference: another
memory blocks access or retrieval
Schacter’s Seven Sins of Memory
Transience
Absent-mindedness
Blocking
Misattribution
Suggestibility
Bias
Unwanted persistence
Hermann Ebbinghaus and Transience
or Impermanence or Gradual Fading
Memories seem to weaken over time
Nonsense syllables
The Forgetting Curve
For relatively
meaningless
material, there is a
rapid initial loss of
memory, followed by a
declining rate of loss
Forgetting
A case in point
Information once
stored in LTM that
cannot be retrieved—may involve
decay, interference, or repression.
Some inputs decay over time--transience
Interference or blocking: memory being
blocked or erased by previous
or subsequent memories.
What remark?
The only
thing I
recall about
last week
was that
party.
That was a
real bonehead
remark Pete
made last
week.
Proactive interference—earlier
memory does blocking
Duh, I can’t recall
anything about the
Manteca game; but I
remember that blow
to the head I took
against Turlock.
Retroactive interference—a later
memory does the blocking
The coach said
that Logan was
open two plays
ago; but I only
remember last
play.
Here is another
experiment. You have
10-seconds to memorize
this list:
Who would like
to try?
Cereal
Coffee
Eggs
Beets
Milk
Tri-tip roast
Apples
Bananas
Henweigh
Shampoo
The Serial Position effect
Diminished memory for the
middle; We are better able to
recall information presented at
the beginning and end of a list.
Remember first 4-5 items
because had more time to
rehearse them (primacy
effect); recall last 3-4 items
because they were still
accessible in STM (recency
effect)
Cereal
Coffee
Eggs
Beets
Milk
Tri-tip roast
Apples
Bananas
Henweigh
Shampoo
Reconstructive processes: the
alteration (or misattribution) of a
recalled memory that may be simplified,
enriched, or distorted, depending on
our experiences and attitudes
Confabulation:
someone
Oh, Kevin, I
“remembers”
know I heard
information
Brittney say
that was
she went out
with a college never stored
guy.
in memory.
Confabulation: if our
reconstruction of an event is
incomplete, we fill the gaps by
making up what is missing.
Sometimes, we may
be wrong.
AAAARGH!! I
goofed!
Schemas: conceptual frameworks a person
uses to make sense of the world—sets of
expectations about something that is based
on our past experiences.
Elizabeth Loftus study (1974)
tested schemas by suggesting
different verbs to different people
as they described a car crash.
Those schemas (how they
interpreted the verbs) affected the
way they constructed the crash.
Misinformation effect
My name is Kyle and I’m a defense
attorney. What are some accuracy
pitfalls I should be aware of as I
prepare to cross-examine a witness?
People’s recollections are less
influenced by leading questions if
they are forewarned that interrogations can create memory bias
When the passage of time allows
the original memory to fade, people
are more likely to misremember
information
Each time a memory is retrieved, it is reconstructed
then stored, increasing the chances of error
The age of the witness matters
Confidence in a memory is not a sign of accuracy
Repression: a person subconsciously blocks memories of
embarrassing or frightening
experiences.
I
honestly
don’t.
Class of 2009
You don’t
10-Year Reunion remember
tripping in that
routine during
the Turlock
game our
senior year?
Becca McDonnell
Joanna Blain
Schacter’s Seven Sins of Memory
Transience
Absent-mindedness
Blocking
Misattribution
Suggestibility
Bias
Unwanted persistence
Bias: the influence of personal beliefs,
attitudes, and experiences on memory
Expectancy Bias bias
Self-consistency
The
A tendency
idea thattowe
distort
are
more
recalled
consistent
events to
in our
attitudes,
make them
opinions,
fit one’sand
beliefs
expectations
than we actually
are.
You’re
conveniently
remember
it that
I’m going to vote for this I don’t
forgetting
allyou
those
way.
I
think
just
I’ve alwaysremember
been a
candidate—I
elections in the ’70s
wantyou
another
how he handled
that
when
wereperson
trying to
conservative
in voting.
crisis really well.
from
that party
impress
thoseelected.
liberal
girls.
Improving Memory
Organizing what you learn plus chunking.
Elaborative rehearsal: you relate new
information to what you already know .
How meaningful
what you learned
is to you also plays
a role in memory.
Look, I really want to do well, so I memorized
the entire report by chunking key points and
rehearsing for 3 hours, and I am now ready to
present it.
Improving Memory
Mnemonic devices—techniques
for learning based on using
associations.
In science you have kingdom,
phylum, class, order, family,
genus and species. Use this
mnemonic device: “Kings
play cards on fat green stools.”
Then there is the spectrum of
colors: Roy G. Biv (red-orangeyellow-green-blue-indigo-violet.)
Improving Memory
Mnemonic devices
Here is a great way
to remember the
planets: My very
excited mother just
served us noodles.
Improving Memory
Association, or method of loci
I’ll always remember the
people in Simoncini’s AP
US history class by how
they sat. Kami, Evan and
Sara sat in the front by the
door, Luke and Trevor sat
right in front of Simoncini,
Nick sat behind Luke and
Kara sat next to him . .
Associate items on a list with a sequence of familiar
Locations—first used by Cicero
Improving Memory Synesthesia:
the stimulation of one sense triggers a
secondary response in another sense
Ugh! Every time I see a
hospital, I think I smell
alcohol.
Improving Memory
Lack of interference
I’ll always
remember this
idea because it is
so peaceful here
today.
Improving Memory
Degree of original learning
I’ll always
remember
how to block on
this play because
the coach made us
practice it so many
times.
Innateness theory of language
Children acquire language not merely by
imitating but also by following an inborn
program of steps to acquire the vocabulary
and grammar of the language in their
environment.
Noam Chomsky (cognitive psychologist)
Children are born with mental
structures, built into the brain,
that make it possible to
comprehend and produce speech
Language Acquisition
Device (LAD)
Foundations
of language are
genetic—Broca’s
area in the cerebral
cortex
Wernicke’s Area
Particularly involved in the comprehension of
spoken language.
Babbling: A foundation for language
Speech-like sounds and
syllables
Babies make nearly all
sounds made in all
languages
First year: average child
makes many sounds.
Late first year: sounds
begin to sound more
like language the child hears
Imitate speech they hear
React to praise
Usually says first word
Step 1: One must learn to make
signs—hand or mouth
Step 2: Learn to give
signs meaning
Step 3: Learn grammar
Children learn steps at
own speed
During 2nd year: leap in language
development—using sounds as
symbols
Early words often
pertain to things the
child can see or touch
Primitive, incomplete
words
Age 2: at least 1000 word vocabulary
Join words into 2-word phrases
18 months-5 years: children add
5-10 words per day
to their vocabulary
4-5 years, vocabulary
of several thousand words;
10,000 by age 6.
The Naming Explosion
18 months
24 months
Niki get
down.
Baba
Language and thought are closely
intertwined
Grammar: the ability to arrange
symbols in new combinations to
produce new meanings.
Especially well developed in the
human brain.
Grammar at 2: telegraphic speech:
words left out, but meanings usually
clear
“Where my ball?”
“Daddy fall down”
Understand some rules—
such as keeping words in
same order as adults.
At first, use correct form of verb.
Example: “Daddy went yesterday.”
Later, after learning grammar
rule for forming past tenses,
they replace correct form with
a combination of the rule &
what they hear: “Daddy goed
yesterday.” (over-regularization)
Now, we are going
to discuss another
aspect of memory:
the units of thought.
Storage & retrieval—basic processes
Thinking & problem solving—much
more complex processes
Thinking: changing
& reorganizing
information stored
in memory to
create new
information.
The processes of thought depend
on four key Units of Thought
Image: (most
primitive) mental
representation of
a specific event
or object
Remember only
a few details
Symbol: (more abstract)—a sound
or design that represents an
object or quality
Most common:
words (symbols
that stand for
something other
Joint
than themselves.)
5 G ?
Concept: when a symbol is used
as a label for a class of objects
or events with certain common
attributes, or for the attributes
themselves, based on experience
Animals
Music
Another example of concept: Bonehead
Animals and music are “concepts”
that have common attributes of
the objects involved
Concepts allow us to chunk
large amounts of information—
we can add on to certain classes
of information rather than treating
every new input as unique.
There are two types of concepts
Natural concepts: mental representations
of objects and events drawn from our
direct experience.
Artificial concepts: defined by rules, such as
word definitions and mathematical formulas
Precisely defined ideas or abstractions, rather
than actual objects n the world
One form of natural concept is the prototype
When we think of a concept, we
often think of a representative
example of it. For example. . .
Picture the concept of a vehicle, Nick.
For Nick, a limousine is a
representative example of a
vehicle, or a prototype.
Rule—fourth & most complex
of the units of thought
Rules are statements of relations
between two concepts
The same animal cannot be both
a reptile and a mammal.
Concept Hierarchy
Abstract
Specific/concrete
Cognitive Maps
A cognitive representation of physical space
is a special form of visual concept called a
cognitive map. (Tolman) Nick, my challenge right
now is how to beat Sara
to Beyer High School.
Determinations from PET Scans and MRIs
No single “thinking center”
The brain is a community of highly specialized
modules, each of which deals with different
components (units) of thought
Role of the frontal lobes
Especially important in coordinating mental
activity when we think, making decisions, and
solving problems
Prefrontal Cortex
1. Keeping track of an episode
2. Understanding the context of an episode
3. Responding to a specific stimulus
Schemas: conceptual frameworks a person
uses to make sense of the world—sets of
expectations about something that is based
on our past experiences. Example: wedding
Schemas: provide contexts and expectations
about the features likely to be found when you
encounter familiar people, situations, images
and ideas
Hot
The situation on the Korean
peninsula is a hot topic.
Becky, I
just met a
hot guy!
It’s so hot
today. I’m
miserable.
Norman and Rumelhart’s findings on schemas
Schemas are the primary units of meaning in the
human information-processing system. You
comprehend new information by integrating
new input with what you already know
Example: a new type of pizza introduced by
your favorite establishment
Script: Thanksgiving Dinner
Kinds of thinking
Directed thinking: a systematic
and logical attempt to reach a
specific goal.
How can I get those
students to learn this
material? What must I
do? OK. If I slow
down my lectures, and
then ask questions. . .
Kinds of thinking
Non-directed, or divergent,
thinking consists of a free flow
of thoughts with no particular
goal or plan, and depends more
on images.
What time is that
meeting? I can’t wait for the
weekend. What should
I wear on Thursday?
We need dog food.
Kinds of thinking
Metacognition—thinking about
thinking
OK, I haven’t been
able to solve that
problem. So maybe if
I used a different
version of the
problem-solving
process. . .
The characteristics of a good problem solver
Possess requisite knowledge for
solving the problem
Skilled at identifying the problem
and selecting a strategy to attack
the problem
Problem Solving
Directed thinking to bridge the
gap between the present
situation and a desired goal
Available funds How to budget Bills
Identify the problem
Consider all relevant possibilities, without
leaping to conclusions
Why is Sara being such a
pain recently? Maybe there’s
a problem at home. Maybe
it’s a boyfriend problem.
Perhaps she’s having
difficulty in another class.
Maybe as a blonde she is
overwhelmed. It could also
be a character flaw.
Selecting strategies
More complex problems: step-by-step formulas
called algorithms
OK. When the
microphones don’t work
properly we follow the
following algorithm: 1)
check to see if everything
is plugged in; 2) check
the battery in the control
box; 3) check the control
adjustments.
Heuristics
Rules of thumb—basic
rules that help us cut
through the confusion
of complicated situations
There are several tried
and true heuristics to
address this situation.
Let’s review some.
Problem Solving Strategies
Research various solutions to
achieve a goal
OK. I have to be in L. A. by
Friday. If I drive, it will take
7 hours and cost $45.00. If
I take Amtrack, it will cost
$70.00 and take 5 hours. If
I take Greyhound, it will
cost $35.00 and take 10
hours. The most efficient
way is. . .
Problem Solving Strategies
1. Means-End Analysis (Reverse planning)
My goal is a good
class. Before class,
I’ll rehearse. Before
rehearsing, I’ll write
a good lesson
plan. Before I write
my lesson plan, I’ll
do a lot of research.
Problem Solving Strategies
2. Most people analyze problems to
see if it resembles a situation
we have experienced in the past—
search for analogies.
The last 3
times,
Lauren fell to
the left a bit. So
I need to cheat
a little to the left
this time.
Problem Solving
Strategies
Specific methods
3. Break down a complex
problems into several
smaller, more easily solved
problems.
Problem Solving Strategies
A mental set: is a useful strategy that
has become cemented into a
person’s problem-solving process.
No
prob.
She’ll
fake
left &
go
right.
When I’m guarded
this way, I always
fake left and go
right. So I’ll do it
again.
Set leads to rigidity
Functional fixedness
The inability to perceive a new use for an object
associated with a different purpose
Oh, gee. The
only way to
get there is to
turn left here.
Meagan is such
a dweeb. She
also could have
gone straight or
turned right.
Bias
Confirmation
Hindsight
I disagree with
that solution, so
it is no good.
I heard planes
crash so I
refuse to fly.
Anchoring
Representative
Availability
I hate how
Simoncini
makes fun
of blondes
Problem Solving Strategies
Creativity: a way to use information
in such a way that the result is
something new, original and
meaningful.
All problem
solving involves
some creativity
Problem Solving Strategies
Flexibility: the ability to overcome
rigidity.
Problem Solving Strategies
Recombination: a new mental
arrangement of elements.
After a basketball
player learns
basic moves, she
then simply
recombines those
skills as situations
arise.