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Memory Quiz next Friday! (December 7, before POL’s) Prepared by J. W. Taylor V Three-Stage Encoding Model of Memory Information into Memory Retrieving Memory Forgetting Information from Three-Stage Model of Memory Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory The Three-Stage Model Developed late 1960s Views memory as composed of three relatively distinct stages, or three “types” of memory Sensory Short-Term Long-Term The Three-Stage Model Sensory Memory Consists of a set of five registers (temporary storage places, one from each sense) We take a “snapshot” of all incoming sensory information from the physical environment Sensory memory holds all input temporarily (few seconds) till we attend to it After a quick interpretation, important info that merits further attention proceeds to short term memory (STM) My T shirt… What color is it? Round or V neck? Fitted or loose? If you can answer these questions, you saw and thought about what you saw. If not, you saw but did not pay much attention Sensory memory of eyes and ears Visual sensory memory – ICONIC MEMORY 1 second duration Large capacity – your entire field of vision You pay attention (transfer to STM) to small part Hearing sensory memory – ECHOIC MEMORY 3 – 4 second duration Large capacity – all the sounds around you that are detectable You only pay attention to one thing (right now, my voice… hopefully) Iconic Memory – sensory memory registered by the eyes We briefly store an exact copy of visual information Less than a second in duration Very large capacity Iconic memory has large capacity but short duration Your mind sees each page individually, and as the page images change, you integrate them into a flowing image http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oVsSroq9_ WU http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qcPx9bi9d 0c Test your iconic memory with this online game (iPad – flash issue?) http://playwithyourmind.com/memory-workoutprogram/iconic-memory-game/ Testing Iconic Memory The temporal integration procedure involves giving two random meaningless dot patterns sequentially at the same visual location with a brief time delay between the two presentations When the two patterns are integrated, a meaningful pattern is produced An Example of the Temporal Integration Procedure Testing Iconic Memory For a meaningful pattern to be perceived, the two patterns must be integrated somewhere in the memory system However, if the time delay between the two presentations is greater than one second, no meaningful pattern can be perceived because the image from the first pattern has faded from iconic memory Testing Iconic Memory Sperling’s full- and partial-report procedures present participants with a different 3 x 3 matrix of unrelated consonants (a total of 9) for 50 ms across numerous experimental trials Here is an example: L Z Q R B P S K N Testing Iconic Memory In the full-report procedure participants had to report the entire matrix Participants said they sensed the entire matrix but that it had faded from memory before they could report all 9 letters Testing Iconic Memory In the partial-report procedure, the participants had to report only one row of the matrix, a row indicated by an auditory cue on each trial When the auditory cue was given immediately after the brief presentation of the letter matrix, participants recalled the indicated row 100% of the time When there was a one second delay between presentation of the matrix and the auditory cue, participants’ recall of the cued row worsened The Three-Stage Model Short-Term Memory Information from sensory memory that you pay attention to, so it enters consciousness Also called “working memory” A place to rehearse information From STM it can be transferred to long-term memory (stored) From long-term memory, it can be retrieved (back to STM) when you need it Capacity of Short-Term Memory Humans have the capacity to manage and remember 7+/- 2 (5 to 9) chunks of information in their short term memory A chunk is a meaningful unit of information Experts in a given domain tend to have larger chunks for information in their area of expertise, ex chess players Many numbers (credit card, phone numbers) Are chunked for easier managment Students who correctly remembered number of dots What happened to your STM during this activity? What is the average capacity of STM for the class? Which image were easiest to remember? Why? What is chunking? What variables or sources of error might affect results in this experiment? Give an example in real life where short term memory is used. Duration of Short-Term Memory Must concentrate on information in short-term memory or it will be lost in 30 seconds Remember this phone number: 917 673 8221 After 10 seconds I will ask you to write it down How did you keep it in working memory? maintenance rehearsal - rehearsing information to keep it in working memory (STM) Remember this sequence: CQ ZHB HWS6P9 Now, starting at 90 count backwards in 3’s… 90, 87, 84…. Go till I stop you Now what was the sequence of 5 letters? distractor task – a task that diverts mental attention from information in STM, resulting in loss of info from STM Describe what happened in your memory systems during this activity. Use the following terms (they are not in correct order): Attention Sensory memory Distractor task Working memory (STM) Maintenance rehearsal Forgetting Results for the Short-Term Memory Distractor Task Name that memory component A guy/girl you like is on a moving train, being pulled away from you. As they move, they shout their phone number to you… it’s 3106832491, but you have no pen or phone to store it in. Arrgghh! You try to remember it while running to a nearby store to ask for a pen. Just as you open the door to the store, Ms P grabs your arm and says “Hey you! So great to see you here!! Have you done your homework? Where were you for thanksgiving? I like your jacket. How’s your mom?.... (and on and on). Describe…. Sensory memory: Attention: Working memory (STM): Maintenance rehearsal: Distractor: What do you think happened? Long-Term Memory Allows storage of information for a long period of time (perhaps permanently) capacity is essentially unlimited LTM Think of an early memory… furthest back you can remember with any clarity Emotions associated with the memory? Who else is in the memory besides you? Can you remember a complete sequence of events, or just fragments? Can you remember what you wore? What the environment looked like? Do you remember what happened during the time before and after the memory? How certain are you that this memory is accurate? Types of Long-Term Memory Types of Long-Term Memory Explicit memory (also called declarative memory) is long-term memory of factual knowledge and personal experiences requires conscious recall (you have to “think” about it) Two types of explicit memories: Semantic memories factual knowledge, true for everyone (ex: Obama is president) Episodic memories personal life experiences (ex: what you did last Saturday night) Explicit memory – episodic or semantic? What you ate for breakfast Current president of the USA Your first kiss Brand of sneakers with this symbol Capitol of England Your last trip to the movies The name of 2 movies starring Denzel Washington The time you ate something that made you sick Retriever dogs are often smelly Come up with one more example of each Types of Long-Term Memory Implicit memory (also called non-declarative memory) long-term memory that influences our behavior, but does not require conscious awareness “automatic” memory, stuff you know but don’t consciously think about Ex:, driving a car; walking Procedural vs conditioned implicit memory procedural memories because they have a physical procedural aspect to them For a tennis expert, such as Serena Williams, the movements to play the game are implicit, procedural memories What about for a person learning to play tennis? (such movements might require conscious recall, and are more semantic memories) Conditioning Classical conditioning (like Pavlov’s dogs) is a type of implicit memory. The learned response does not require conscious recall. The learned response is like a reflex (implicit, not “conscious”). Implicit memory – procedural or conditioning? Feeling tense when police car lights are flashing behind you Tying your shoelaces Writing your name on paper Making toast Feeling scared when you walk past your neighbors yard where her big scary dog often comes running out at you Skipping Playing a video game that you’re really good at * Playing a video game for the first time Types of Long-Term Memory Read p 180 – 184 and answer the following questions What is amnesia? Who was H.M.? Describe the difference between anterograde and retrograde amnesia, giving an example of each and labeling them on this line _______________ trauma ______________ What type of memory is damaged in amnesia? What type remains intact? Describe the mirror-drawing task undergone by H.M. Which two brain areas are used in LTM formation? Amnesia, the Loss of Long-Term Memories Amnesics are people with severe memory deficits following brain surgery or injury H. M. had his hippocampus and surrounding temporal lobe area removed at age 27 (to reduce epileptic seizures) Before the operation, both his short- and long-term memories were normal After the operation, he didn’t seem to be able to store any new information in long-term memory H.M. suffered from anterograde amnesia – the inability to form long-term memories for events following brain surgery or trauma By contrast, retrograde amnesia is the inability to remember events before, especially just before, the surgery or trauma Infantile Amnesia The cerebellum seems to be important for formation of implicit memories, whereas the hippocampus seems to be important for formation of explicit memories Because the hippocampus does not fully develop until about the age of 3, this explains why we cannot remember as adults events that occurred prior to this age (i.e., infantile/ child amnesia) Free recall task Listen to the list of words I read and try to remember as many as you can WITHOUT WRITING When I finish speaking, I will instruct you to write Write as many words as you recall Free recall task answers hip mouth chain loop wish dog five Brain Fish even rice light wine rain line Wait Paper Slip Fruit cry Evidence for the Short-Term vs. Long-Term Distinction The free recall task is an experimental procedure in which participants are given a list of words one at a time, then asked to recall them in any order they wish Compared with the middle of such lists, the recall of the items at the start of the list is superior (the primacy effect) Compared with the middle of such lists, the recall of the items at the end of the list is superior (the recency effect) Which words did you remember most? Why? Serial Position Effects for the Free Recall Task Evidence for the Short-Term vs. Long-Term Distinction The recency effect is caused by recall from short-term memory, whereas the primacy effect is the result of superior recall from long-term memory of the first few words in the list The first few words enter an empty long-term memory and get proportionately more attention than the words in the middle of the list and can thus be transferred into long-term memory The last few words are still in short-term memory at the time of recall If recall is delayed by having participants count rapidly backward by 3’s for 30 seconds, the recency effect is eliminated, but the primacy effect remains To eliminate the primacy effect, simply rehearse each of the items on the list equally Recall challenge I will read you a list of words and then follow them with the letter A or B If a word is followed by A – count how many syllables it contains If a word is followed by B – think about whether is pleasant or unpleasant Ex: Table A Flower B Concrete abstract or nonsense Concrete Words alligator - apple - arrow - baby - bird - book - butterfly - car - corn - flower - hammer - house - money - microscope ocean - pencil - rock - shoes - table – window Abstract Words anger - belief - boredom - chance - concept - effort - fate freedom - glory - happiness - honor - hope - idea - interest - knowledge - mercy - mood - moral - theory – truth Nonsense Words ator - botam - crov - difim - firap - glimoc - ricul- hilnim jolib - kepwin - leptav - lumal - mib - natpem - peyrim rispaw - stiwin - tubiv - vopec - yapib Encoding Information into Memory How We Encode Information How to Improve Encoding Memory System Processes Encoding The process of transferring information from one memory stage to the next Storage The process of maintaining information in a particular stage Retrieval The process of bringing stored information from long-term memory to the conscious level in short-term memory How We Encode Information Automatic processing is processing that occurs subconsciously and does not require attention Effortful processing is processing that occurs consciously and requires attention For a particular type of processing, much practice is needed Levels-of-Processing Theory Describes what types of encoding lead to better retrieval Three levels of processing Physical: How information appears Acoustic: How the information sounds Semantic: What the information means Long-term memory is best for information encoded semantically, next best for information encoded acoustically, and worst of information encoded physically Elaborative Rehearsal Rehearsing information by relating new information to information already in long-term memory Contrasts with maintenance rehearsal (i.e., the repetitive cycling of information in short-term memory) Elaborative rehearsal provides more retrieval cues to facilitate retrieval A good way to elaborate on new material is to relate the material to yourself The self-reference effect says it is easier to remember information that you have related to yourself because such connections provide more retrieval cues and lend more meaning to the new information Environmental Effects on Encoding Encoding specificity principle proposed that the cues present during encoding serve as the best cues for retrieval This is why the various concepts and examples that you relate to a new concept during elaborative rehearsal help you remember the concept State-dependent memory is memory that depends upon the relationship of one’s physiological state at the time of encoding and at the time of retrieval Environmental Effects on Encoding Mood-dependent memory effects attest to the fact that memory is better when a person’s mood is the same during encoding and retrieval For example, if you are happy during encoding information, it is easier to retrieve that information if you are happy at the time of retrieval Mood-congruence effect is the fact that memory is better for experiences that are congruent with a person’s current mood For example, when we are sad it is easier to retrieve negative events in our lives How to Improve Encoding Mnemonics are memory aids that require elaborative rehearsal In the method of loci, the sequential pieces of information to be remembered are first associated with sequential locations in a very familiar room or location When retrieving the information, you merely mentally go around the room (or location) and retrieve the item stored at each sequential location; uses elaborative mental imagery In the peg-word system, you visually associate the items to be remembered in a jingle that you first memorize The Peg-Word Method Term Medulla Pituitary glands Keyword Meaning Medal Controls heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure Pit Regulates growth Mental Picture Imagine the winner of a race (i.e., heart pounding and breathing heavily), while a medal is hung round the winner’s neck. Imagine a young child down in a pit. The child grows and grows until he’s finally big enough to climb out! The Peg-Word Method Term Parasympathetic nervous system Sympathetic nervous system Keyword Meaning Mental Picture Parachute Calms the Imagine the peace and body calming effect of watching a parachute drift slowly downward. Symphony Excites the body Imagine a symphony playing loudly in the room next door! The music excites you and you can’t sit still. The Peg-Word Method Term Keyword Meaning Reticular Retickle Attention formation Cerebellum Cereal bell Mental Picture Imagine tickling someone to get her attention. Then, she loses interest so you have to retickle her! Facilitates Imagine hearing the movement cereal bell. That’s the signal to move to the table and begin spooning cereal. Other Tips for Improving Encoding The spacing effect (or distributed study effect) contends that your memory will improve if you study for an exam over an extended time interval rather than just a few days before the exam Overlearning is studying material past the point of initial learning, and has been demonstrated to aid in retrieval of that information Retrieving Information from Memory How to Measure Retrieval Why We Forget The Reconstructive Nature of Retrieval How to Measure Retrieval Recall is a measure of retrieval that requires the reproduction of the information with essentially no retrieval cues Recognition is a measure of retrieval that only requires the identification of the information in the presence of retrieval cues Relearning, also called the savings method, is a measure of the amount of time saved when learning the information for a second time An Early Study Ebbinhaus conducted the first experimental studies on human memory more than 100 years ago using the relearning method. He would study a list of nonsense syllables until he could correctly recite the complete list without any hesitations. He then put the list aside and waited some period of time and then relearned the list to the same criterion. To get a measure of learning, he computed a savings score – the reduction in the number of trials it took him to reach criterion. Result? The “forgetting curve” reveals that most forgetting occurs in the first two days after learning material. Forgetting Curve for Long-Term Memory Why We Forget Encoding failure theory says that sometimes forgetting is not really forgetting, but rather that the information never entered long-term memory in the first place Storage decay theory suggests that forgetting occurs because of a problem in the storage of the information The biological trace of the memory gradually decays over time and the periodic usage of the information will help to maintain it in storage An Example of Encoding Failure Why We Forget Cue-dependent theory says we forget because the cues necessary for retrieval are not available The information is in memory, but we cannot access it This theory is analogous to knowing a book is in the library but you cannot access it because the library lacks call numbers Interference theory proposes that other similar information interferes and makes the forgotten information inaccessible Types of Interference Proactive interference occurs when information you already know makes it hard to retrieve newly learned information Retroactive interference occurs when information you just learned makes it hard to retrieve old information Types of Interference Types of Interference Think about changing phone numbers after having a certain number for many years. When asked for your new phone number, remembering the old one interferes with retrieving the new one. This is proactive interference Now think about being at a party with many people you don’t know. You meet someone whom you want to talk to later, but after meeting her, you are introduced to many more people. Now, you cannot remember her name. This is retroactive interference The Reconstructive Nature of Retrieval When reading a newspaper article, for instance, we usually code the gist or main theme of the story, along with some of the some of the story’s highlights Then, when we retrieve the information from our memory, we re-construct a memory of the story using the theme and highlights Retrieval re-construction is guided by schemas – organized frameworks of knowledge about people, objects, and events that tell us what normally happens in a given situation They allow us to encode and retrieve information more efficiently The Reconstructive Nature of Retrieval Schemas, however, can lead us to “misremember” information so that it is more consistent with our schemas Frederick Bartlett (1932) had people read unusual stories and subsequently recall details from the stories When the participants recalled the stories, they made them more consist with their schemas about the world Source Misattribution Occurs when we do not remember the true source of a memory and attribute the memory to the wrong source Source misattribution results in false memories, which are inaccurate memories that feel as real as accurate memories. False memories can also occur because of the misinformation effect, which occurs when a memory is distorted by subsequent exposure to misleading information A Study of False Memories Loftus and Palmer (1974) showed people film of a traffic accident and later tested their memory for the accident Some people were asked “How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” and others were asked “How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?” Participants asked the first question estimated a higher speed at impact and reported seeing broken glass when in fact there was none Memory and Testimony False memories suggest that eyewitness testimony is subject to error and manipulated by misleading information Likewise, false memories suggest that recovered memories are not necessarily accurate