Download Chapter 7

CHAPTER 7 - MEMORY
I. STAGES OF MEMORY
memory- is an active system that receives, stores,
organizes, alters, and recovers information
 1. Information is first encoded (changed into a usable
form)
 2. Next it is stored (held in the system)
 3. Finally, memories are retrieved (taken out of
storage) to be useful
 to be stored for a long time, information must pass
through sensory memory, short-term memory, and longterm memory

A. SENSORY MEMORY
1. iconic memories – visual sensory images-typically last
for about one-half second
 2. when you hear information, sensory memory stores it
as an echoic memory for up to 2 seconds

B. SHORT-TERM MEMORY
selective attention controls what information moves on to
short-term memory
 usually stored phonetically
 briefly stores small amounts of information
 it is very sensitive to interruption or interference
 1. Working Memory-briefly holds the information we
need when we are thinking and solving problems

C. LONG-TERM MEMORY
information that is important or meaningful is transferred
to long-term memory
 stored on the basis of meaning, not sound
 if you can link information currently in STM to
knowledge already stored in LTM, it gains meaning

II. SHORT TERM MEMORY
limited to the “magic number” 7
 A. Chunking
 1. information chunks-bits of information grouped into
larger units
 a. it recodes (reorganizes) information into units that
are already in LTM

B. REHEARSING INFORMATION
1. Maintenance rehearsal, rehearsing information allows
you to hear it many times, not just once
 2. rote learning-learning by simple repetition
 3. elaborative processing- makes information more
meaningful; links new information to memories that are
already in LTM

III. LONG-TERM MEMORY
A. Permanence
 memory experts now believe that long-term memories
are only relatively permanent
 B. Elaborating False Memories
 1. false memory – new information is included in
memories and revised
 gaps in memory may be filled in by logic, guessing, or
new information
 it is possible to have memories for things that never
happened
 our memories are colored by emotions, judgments, and
quirks of personality


what we remember depends on what we pay attention to,
what we regard as meaningful or important, what we feel
strongly about
C. ORGANIZING MEMORIES
LTM stores huge amounts of information during a
lifetime
 information may be arranged according to rules, images,
categories, symbols, similarity, formal meaning or
personal meaning

1. REDINTEGRATION
networks of associated memories may also help explain a
common experience
 can also be touched off by distinctive odors of the past

D. TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY
1. Procedural memory –skills- includes basic
conditioned responses and learned actions, such as those
involved in typing, driving or swinging a golf club
 can be expressed only as actions
 2. Declarative memory –facts- stores specific factual
information

a. Semantic Memory-the names of objects, the days of
the week or months of the year, simple math skills, the
seasons, words and language, and other general facts
 b. Episodic Memory-an autobiographical record of
personal experiences; stores life events
 the what, when, and where of our lives

IV. MEASURING MEMORY – PARTIAL MEMORIES
ARE COMMON
tip of the tongue state – the feeling that a memory is
available but not quite retrievable
 de ja vu is the illusion that you have already experienced
a new situation that you are actually seeing for the first
time

A. RECALLING INFORMATION
recall- the direct retrieval of facts or information
 B. Recognizing Information
 recognition memory-previously learned material is
correctly identified

C. Relearning Information
 measured by a savings score (the amount of time you
saved when relearning information)
 D. Implicit and Explicit Memories
 implicit memories lies outside awareness; we are not
aware that a memory exists
 explicit memories are past experiences that are
consciously brought to mind

V. FORGETTING
most forgetting tends to occur immediately after
memorization.
 A. When Encoding Fails
 we forget because of encoding failure- a memory was
never formed in the first place
 B. When Memory Storage Fails
 memory decay appears to be a factor in the loss of
sensory memory, STM
 1. Disuse- memories not retrieved and used or rehearsed
become weaker over time

C. When Retrieval Fails
 even if memories are available (stored), you will have to
be able to access them (locate) in order to remember
 1. Cue-Dependent Forgetting
 a. retrieval may fail because memory cues are missing
when the time comes to retrieve info
 2. State-Dependent Learning-the bodily state that exists
during learning can be a strong retrieval cue for later
memory

3. Interference- new learning can interfere with the
ability to retrieve previous learning
 a. retroactive interference-the tendency for new learning
to inhibit retrieval of old learning
 b. proactive interference-when prior learning inhibits
recall of later learning
 4. Transfer of Training
 a. positive transfer-mastery of one task aids mastery of a
second task
 b. negative transfer-skills developed in one situation
conflict with those required to master a new task

5. Repression and Suppression of Memories
 repression-motivated forgetting; painful, threatening, or
embarrassing memories are held out of consciousness
 suppression-an active, conscious attempt to put
something out of mind

VI. MEMORY AND THE BRAIN
a head injury may cause a gap in memories preceding an
accident- retrograde amnesia; anterograde amnesia
involves forgetting events that follow an injury or trauma
 A. Memory, Stress and Emotion
 1. flashbulb memory-an especially vivid image that
seems to be frozen in memory at times of personal
tragedy, accident, or other emotionally significant events

VII. EXCEPTIONAL MEMORY
mental images (pictures) – many memories are stored as
mental images
 A. Eidetic imagery-when a person has visual images
clear enough to be scanned or retained for at least 30
seconds

VIII. IMPROVING MEMORY
A. Encoding Strategies
 1. Elaborative Processing -Rehearsal-mentally review as
you read
 2. Selection-selective marking in your texts; marginal
notes to summarize ideas
 3. Organization-organizing notes
 4. Whole vs. Part Learning-it is better to practice whole
packages of info rather than smaller parts

5. Serial Position-give extra practice to the middle of a
list, poem, speech
 6. Cues-stimuli that aid retrieval
 7. Overlearning 8. Spaced Practice-short study sessions with brief rest
periods

B. RETRIEVAL STRATEGIES
1. Recitation-learning proceeds best when feedback or
knowledge of results allows you to check your progress
 2. Review 3. Extend How Long You Remember-gradually lengthen
the amount of time that passes before you test yourself
again
 4. Sleep and Memory-sleeping after study reduces
interference
 5. Hunger and Memory-people who are hungry almost
always score lower on memory tests.
