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PowerPoint
Presentations for
Seventh Edition
Philip G. Zimbardo
Robert L. Johnson
Vivian McCann
Prepared by
Beth M. Schwartz
Randolph College
This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display,
including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any
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Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chapter 5
Memory
This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display,
including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any
rental, lease, or lending of the program. ISBN: 0-205-42428-7
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What Is Memory?
Human memory is an
information-processing
system that works
constructively to encode,
store, and retrieve
information.
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What Is Memory?
Memory
• A cognitive system that processes,
encodes, and stores the information we
learn and later allows us to
retrieve it
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Metaphors for Memory
Human memory is not like a video
recorder. Human memory is an
interpretive system, much like an artist.
• Reconstructive process
• Unique “perception” of events
• Information undergoes systematic
changes as it is processed.
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Human Memory Is Good at
Remembering Information:
• On which attention is focused
• In which we are interested
• That arouses us emotionally
• That fits with our previous experiences
• That we rehearse
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Memory’s Three Basic Tasks
Encoding
Storage
Access and
Retrieval
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Memory’s Three Basic Functions
Encoding
Storage
Access and
Retrieval
Select stimulus from
vast array of input
Modification of the
information to fit the
preferred format for the
memory system
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Memory’s Three Basic Functions
Encoding
Storage
Access and
Retrieval
Retention of
encoded material
over time
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Memory’s Three Basic Functions
Encoding
Storage
Access and
Retrieval
The location
and recovery
of information
from memory
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How Do We
Form Memories?
Each of the three memory
stages encodes and stores
memories in a different way,
but all three work together to
transform sensory experience
into a lasting record that has a
pattern of meaning.
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The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-Term
Memory
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The First Stage: Sensory Memory
On the next slide, you will see a
series of letters for one second.
Try to remember as many letters
as you can.
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DJB
XHG
C LY
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The First Stage: Sensory Memory
How many can you recall?
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DJB
XHG
C LY
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Characteristics of Sensory Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-Term
Memory
•Briefly holds information awaiting entry into
working memory
•Sensory images; no meaningful encoding
•Holds twelve to sixteen items
•Lasts from one-quarter of a second to a few
seconds
•Separate sensory registers for each sense
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Multiple Sensory Stores
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The First Stage: Sensory Memory
Psychologists believe that, in this stage,
memory images take the form of neural
activity in the sense organs.
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Characteristics of Working Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-Term
Memory
•Involved in control of attention
•Attaches meaning to stimulation
•Makes associations among ideas and events
•Encodes information with meaning for long-term
storage
•Capacity of 7 + or – 2 chunks of information
•Information stored for about twenty seconds in duration
•Rehearsal leads to longer duration
•Acoustic encoding
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Encoding and Storage
in Working Memory
Chunking
• Organizing pieces of information into a
smaller number of meaningful units
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Types of Rehearsal in Working Memory
Maintenance Rehearsal
• Information is repeated or reviewed to keep
it from fading.
Elaborative Rehearsal
• Information is actively reviewed and related
to information already in LTM.
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Components of Working Memory
•
•
•
•
Central executive: directs attention to input
Phonological loop: temporarily stores sounds
Sketchpad: stores/manipulates visual images
Episodic buffer: helps to remember events
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A Model of Working Memory
Figure 5.6 A Model of Working Memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s original model divided memory into three stages. Events must first be processed by
sensory memory and short-term memory (now called working memory) before they finally go into long-term
memory storage—from which they can later be retrieved back into working memory. Baddeley’s (2003) updated
version of working memory includes a central executive that directs attention, a sketchpad for visual and spatial
information, a phonological loop for sounds, and an episodic buffer that can combine many kinds of information
into memories of events. This drawing includes all of these refinements to the original model of working memory.
Source: Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive
Sciences, 4, 417–423.
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Levels of Processing in Working Memory
Information that is more thoroughly connected to
meaningful terms in LTM will be better
remembered.
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The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-Term
Memory
•Long-term storage of information
•Meaningful mental categories
•Unlimited capacity
•Unlimited duration
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Types of Information in
Long-Term Memory
Procedural Memory
• Stores memories for how things are done
Declarative Memory
• Stores explicit information; Includes
episodic and semantic memory
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Subdivisions of Declarative Memory
Episodic Memory
• Stores personal events, or “episodes”
Semantic Memory
• Stores general knowledge, including
meanings of words and concepts
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Figure 5.8 Components of Long-Term Memory
Declarative memory involves knowing specific information—knowing “what.” It stores facts, personal
experiences, language, concepts—things about which we might say, “I remember!” Procedural memory
involves knowing “how”—particularly motor skills and behavioral learning.
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The Biological Basis
of Long-Term Memory
Engram
• The physical changes associated with a
memory trace
Anterograde Amnesia
• Inability to form new memories
Retrograde Amnesia
• Inability to remember information previously
stored in memory
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How Do We
Retrieve Memories?
Whether memories are
implicit or explicit, successful
retrieval depends on how
they were encoded and how
they are cued.
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How Do We
Retrieve Memories?
Implicit Memory
• Not deliberately learned; that of which you
have no conscious awareness
Explicit Memory
• Processed with attention; can be consciously
recalled
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Retrieval Cues
Stimuli used to bring a memory to
consciousness or to cue a behavior
Priming
• Providing cues that stimulate memories
without awareness of the connection
between the cue and the retrieved memory
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Priming Task Example
If you are presented with the following
words:
assassin, octopus, avocado, mystery,
sheriff, climate
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Priming Task
An hour later, you would easily be able to
identify which of the following words you
had previously seen:
twilight, assassin, dinosaur, mystery
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Priming Task
However, an hour later, you would also
have a much easier time filling in the
blanks of some of these words than
others:
ch_ _ _ _ nk
o _ t _ _ _ us
_ og _ y _ _ _
_ l _ m _ te
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Priming Task
While you did not actively try to remember
“octopus” and “climate” from the first list,
they were primed in the reading, which
made them easier to identify in this task:
chipmunk
octopus
bogeyman
climate
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Retrieving Explicit Information
Gist
• The sense or meaning, as contrasted with
exact details
Recall
• Retrieval method in which one must
reproduce previously presented information
Recognition
• Retrieval method in which one must
identify present stimuli as having been
previously presented
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Other Factors Affecting Retrieval
Encoding Specificity Principle
• Memories are encoded with specific cues
related to the context in which they were
formed.
• The more closely the retrieval clues match
the form in which the information was
encoded, the better it will be remembered.
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Other Factors Affecting Retrieval
Mood-Congruent Memory
• A memory process that selectively retrieves
memories that match one’s mood
• Happy moods are likely to trigger happy
memories; depression perpetuates itself
through biased retrieval of depressing
memories.
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Other Factors Affecting Retrieval
Prospective Memory
• Aspect of memory that enables one to
remember to take some action in the future
Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) Phenomenon
• Inability to recall a word known to be in
one’s memory
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Why Does Memory
Sometimes Fail Us?
Most of our memory
problems arise from
memory’s “seven sins,”
which are really byproducts
of otherwise adaptive
features of human memory.
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Memory’s “Seven Sins”
Transience
AbsentMindedness
Misattribution
Suggestibility
Bias
Persistence
Blocking
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Transience
The impermanence of a long-term memory:
long-term memories gradually fade in
strength over time.
• Relearning
• Savings method
• Forgetting curve
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Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
Savings demonstrated by relearning drops
rapidly and reaches a plateau, below which
little more is forgotten
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Forgetting Due to Interference
Interference
• One item prevents us from forming a robust
memory for another item.
Proactive Interference
• Previously stored information prevents one
from learning and remembering new
information.
Retroactive Interference
• Newly learned information prevents the
retrieval of previously stored information.
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Two Types of Interference
Figure 5.11 Two Types of Interference
In proactive interference, earlier learning (Spanish) interferes with memory for later information (French). In
retroactive interference, new information (French) interferes with memory for information learned earlier
(Spanish).
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Absent-Mindedness
• Forgetting caused by lapses in attention
• An attentive shift leads to retrieval failure
• E.g., change blindness
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Blocking
• Forgetting that occurs when an item in
memory cannot be accessed or retrieved
• E.g., forgetting a familiar person’s name
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Misattribution
Memory fault that occurs when memories
are retrieved, but are associated with the
wrong time, place, or person.
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Suggestibility
Process of memory distortion as the
result of deliberate or inadvertent
suggestion
• Misinformation effect
• Fabricated memories
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Factors Affecting the Accuracy of
Eyewitnesses
• Leading questions
• Substantial passage of time
• Repeated retrieval
• Age of the witness
• Unwarranted confidence
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Bias
An attitude, belief, emotion, or
experience that distorts memories
• Expectancy bias
• Self-consistency bias
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Persistence
Memory problem in which unwanted
memories cannot be put out of mind
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The Advantages of the
“Seven Sins” of Memory
Despite the grief they cause us, the
“seven sins” may actually be byproducts
of adaptive features of memory.
• Absent-mindedness is the byproduct of the
useful ability to shift our attention.
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Improving Memory with Mnemonics
Mnemonics
• Techniques for improving memory,
especially by making connections between
new material and information already
present in long-term memory
Mnemonic strategies include:
• Method of loci
• Natural language mediators
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Using Psychology to Learn Psychology
• Make the material meaningful.
• Spread learning over time.
• Minimize interference.
• Review and elaborate material.
• Test yourself with retrieval cues.
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