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APES Review Part 1 The Earth In Context The Earth Around the Sun Impact of Earth Rotation and Axis Tilt on Climate The Earth’s Layers Plate Tectonics Geologic Processes Shifting of the Crust: - crust is broken up into large plates Plate Boundaries 1. Divergent: move away from each other – create a ridge or trench that may allow magma from the mantle to flow upward Plate Boundaries 2. Convergent: plates ram into one another - may push each other up and form mountains - one plate may be forced under the other in a process called subduction – Plate Tectonics Plate Tectonics 3. Transform Plates: plates slide past one another = earthquakes produce seismic waves – energy of the vibrations of the shifting plates moving through the land Plate Tectonics Transform Plates Earthquakes begins far below the surface at the focus which is directly beneath the epicenter – the point at the top of the earth’s crust above the focus – severity is measured on the Richter scale – Volcano Formation 1. 2. 3. Subduction Thin spots in crust Hot spots in mantle Types of Rock 1. Igneous – from the cooling of magma (lava) Ex: obsidian, granite, pumice Igneous Rock Types of Rock 2. Sedimentary – form by the compaction of smaller bits of eroded rock or deposited material Ex: limestone, diotomecious earth Sedimentary Rock Sedimentary Rock Types of Rock 3. Metamorphic – rock that is changed because it is in a new environment usually due to subduction – becomes exposed to heat and pressure and rearranges the way the rock is organized Ex: Limestone Marble Metamorphic Rock Rock Cycle Soil Formation Soil Formation Soil Composition Cation Exchange Soil Erosion Wind Precipitation Monoculture Deforestation Farming Techniques Soil Conservation Farming Techniques Crop Rotation Wind Barriers Erosion Barriers The Atmosphere Greenhouse Effect Climate and Air Circulation Patterns Convection Cell Rain Shadow Wind and Water - ENSO Normal Years Wind and Water ENSO WATER Cycle Aquatic Biomes Streams and Rivers Estuaries Marshes and Swamps Oceans: - pelagic, benthic, coral reefs, intertidal zones Stratification in Aquatic Biomes Intertidal zone Neritic zone Littoral zone Limnetic zone 0 Oceanic zone Photic zone 200 m Continental shelf Pelagic zone Benthic zone Photic zone Aphotic zone Pelagic zone Benthic zone Aphotic zone 2,500–6,000 m Abyssal zone (deepest regions of ocean floor) (a) Zonation in a lake. The lake environment is generally classified on the basis of three physical criteria: light penetration (photic and aphotic zones), distance from shore and water depth (littoral and limnetic zones), and whether it is open water (pelagic zone) or bottom (benthic zone). Figure 50.16a, b (b) Marine zonation. Like lakes, the marine environment is generally classified on the basis of light penetration (photic and aphotic zones), distance from shore and water depth (intertidal, neritic, and oceanic zones), and whether it is open water (pelagic zone) or bottom (benthic and abyssal zones). Lakes and Ponds LAKES Figure 50.17 An oligotrophic lake in Grand Teton, Wyoming A eutrophic lake in Okavango delta, Botswana Oligotrophic vs. Eutrophic Oligo - little or few nutrients - low productivity due to few producers - high oxygen content - few organisms - clean and clear Eu - nutrient rich - high productivity due to high number of producers - low oxygen content - many organisms - murky water Mesotrophic - an oligo that is becoming a eu - due to influx of extra nutrients - usually due to erosion, run off of fertilizers from agriculture or animal poo extra nutrients increase the activity of the producers Eutrophication: http://www.eoearth.org/article/Eutrophication Lakes Are sensitive to seasonal temperature change Experience seasonal turnover 2 In spring, as the sun melts the ice, the surface water warms to 4°C and sinks below the cooler layers immediately below, eliminating the thermal stratification. Spring winds mix the water to great depth, bringing oxygen (O2) to the bottom waters (see graphs) and nutrients to the surface. Lake depth (m) In winter, the coldest water in the lake (0°C) lies just below the surface ice; water is progressively warmer at deeper levels of the lake, typically 4–5°C at the bottom. O2 (mg/L) 0 4 Spring Winter 8 12 8 16 2 4 4 4 4C 24 O2 concentration 0 Lake depth (m) 1 O2 (mg/L) 0 4 8 12 8 16 4 4 4 4 4 4C 24 High Medium O2 (mg/L) 0 8 12 8 16 24 4 4 Autumn 4 4 4 4C 4 In autumn, as surface water cools rapidly, it sinks below the underlying layers, remixing the water until the surface begins to freeze and the winter temperature profile is reestablished. 4 Thermocline 3 22 20 18 8 6 5 4C Summer Lake depth (m) Lake depth (m) Low O2 (mg/L) 0 4 8 12 8 16 24 In summer, the lake regains a distinctive thermal profile, with warm surface water separated from cold bottom water by a narrow vertical zone of rapid temperature change, called a thermocline. Importance: Seasonal Turnover Brings Oxygen from the Surface to the Benthic Detrivores and Returns the Nutrients of the Decomposed Detritus (dead stuff) to the Surface for the Producers Wetlands: Swamps and Marshes WETLANDS Okefenokee National Wetland Reserve in Georgia Wetlands Marsh vs. Swamp: Swamps have trees Characteristics: soil is waterlogged and without oxygen for variable periods of time - lack of O2 causes a large build up of organic material IMPORTANCE: Most biologically productive per square meter, filter water moving through them detoxify water, control flooding Streams and rivers STREAMS AND RIVERS Figure 50.17 A headwater stream in the Great Smoky Mountains The Mississippi River far form its headwaters Streams and Rivers Characteristics: Flowing water IMPORTANCE: Water source, hydroelectric power, transportation Estuaries ESTUARIES Figure 50.17 An estuary in a low coastal plain of Georgia Estuaries Characteristics: Where freshwater rivers meet the ocean - mixing of fresh and salt water - salinity fluctuates - plants and animals must be adapted - highly productive due to nutrient input from river, frequent mixing of water by ocean tides (circulates nutrients and waste) and large photic zone IMPORTANCE: control flooding- prevent wave surges from reaching inland - highly productive Intertidal zones INTERTIDAL ZONES Figure 50.17 Rocky intertidal zone on the Oregon coast Intertidal Zones Characteristics: Transition between land and ocean - experience daily extremes of salinity, oxygen content and temperature due to changing tide IMPORTANCE: Biologically productive, species rich Oceanic pelagic biome OCEANIC PELAGIC BIOME Figure 50.17 Open ocean off the island of Hawaii Ocean Pelagic Biome Characteristics: Open ocean, about 3% salt content Vegetation: mainly photoplankton and algae, some sea grass and kelp Animals: zooplankton, fish, jellyfish, whales, porpoises, sea turtles, penguins IMPORTANCE: Most productive biome due to size (not per m2), food source (fish) OVERFISHING - Regulation? Coral reefs CORAL REEFS Figure 50.17 A coral reef in the Red Sea Coral Reefs Characteristics: Mounds of calcium carbonate secreted by coral, shallow, warm waters, nutrient poor Vegetation: Algae (Zooxanthelle) Symbiosis: Coral and Zooxanthelle Animals: Coral, huge numbers of fishes, echinoderms, shellfish (8% of fish species in 0.1% of earth) IMPORTANCE: Biodiversity of Species, Very productive DANGERS: Human pollution, river runoff (excess sediment and nutrients), over fishing Marine benthic zone MARINE BENTHIC ZONE Figure 50.17 A deep-sea hydrothermal vent community Marine Benthic Zone Characteristics: Bottom of the Ocean, may be in a photic zone in the shallows Neritic Zone: Shallow benthic zone, PHOTIC, supports plant life (sea grass and kelp) and a wide variety of fish and invertebrates Abyssal Zone: APHOTIC - deepest part of sea - no vegetation - hydrothermal vents Animals: Decomposers, Very weird fish, tube worms, chemosynthetic bacteria IMPORTANCE: Decomposition of dead materials, recycling on nutrients Ocean Currents Water Use How do we use the world's fresh water? S 65% – irrigate farm land (agriculture) S 25% – energy production S 10% – domestic and municipal use Humans and Other Species - loss of habitat Habitat fragmentation Habitat degradation Threatened Species Endangered Species ESA Resources Consumption Conservation Preservation Sustainable Renewable Non-renewable Agriculture Traditional Slash and Burn Green Revolution: Good or Bad? Fertilizers and Pesticides Irrigation GMO Monoculture Soil Degradation Overgrazing Deforestation Oceans Overfishing By-catch Drift nets Long Lining Bottom Trawling Long Line Fishing Drift Nets Bottom Trawling Mining Metallic Minerals Smelting Tailings Soil Runoff Water Pollution Economics and The Environment Cost - Benefit Analysis Remediation vs. Abatement