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XP
INF: 101
TOURISM INFORMATION
SYSTEMS I
XP
UNDERSTANDING TOURISM INFORMATION
SYSTEMS AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
XP
• To introduce the concept of systems thinking as it is applied to
information technology (IT) and information systems (IS).
• It is important for hospitality managers to understand the broad
realm of systems thinking and know how to apply it to all hospitality
information systems (HIS) and technology.
• This overview of systems theory provides the foundation for
understanding everything you need to know about management and
technology.
• Systems thinking provides templates that permit one to take
apparently complicated concepts and simplify them. Thus, it is in
every hospitality manager’s interest to understand systems thinking.
UNDERSTANDING THE COMPONENTS
OF SYSTEMS THEORY
XP
Before discussing systems theory, it is appropriate to identify the role of a few of the
components:
•
•
•
Theories: A theory is an underlying principle or an explanation of something scientific
or philosophical. Theories explain why things happen.
Practices: A practice is based on a set of theories. Thus, a practice explains how to do
things, based on why things happen.
Tools: A tool is something used to perform a practice. A tool is something we use to do
things, whereas the things we do are based on why things happen.
Theories drive practices, and practices use tools. Thus, philosophy and
science give us management principles, which guide us in the practice of
management. Management practices require the use of tools such as
technology. Therefore, management is a practice, not a science.
Furthermore, technology is a tool that helps managers practice
management, not a science or a practice. Systems thinking is a theory from
science and philosophy that describes patterns of collaborative energy
called relationships. More specifically, this theory bases its findings on the
hard sciences and includes computer science.
Analyzing Systems Theory in General
XP
• Based on general systems theory, the management and technology
systems approach views every entity as a system with
interdependent parts that function as a whole. Each entity is also a
subsystem in relation to a larger system, and so on, throughout the
universe. The outside environment does not influence closed
systems.
• The external environment of the world influences hospitality
organizations, which open systems. These organizations must
interact constantly with the external environment for survival and
evolve in order to keep up with the changes in the world around
them. For instance, the Internet revolution that is occurring in
today’s environment influences hospitality organizations to create
systems that permit electronic entry by potential guests and
customers, something that was not a concern 20 years ago.
Hospitality organizations that fail to respond to this situation in the
external environment will find themselves at a competitive
disadvantage.
lyzing Systems Theory in General
nt)
XP
• A person is a biological system, as are trees, plants, and animals,
which all interact with the universal laws of biology that come from
the environment. If a person is a system and that person is a
member of a family, then the system called “that person” is a
subsystem of the family. The person is a unique and complete
system, but when that person is interacting with the other people in
the family unit, that relationship makes each person, a subsystem of
the family system. The same is true for organizations, which are
composed of people, with each person being a biological system.
When the people in an organization interact with others, they
become subsystems of the organization: Work units, departments,
and divisions divide them. The organization may be one unit in a
chain of organizations, which makes it a subsystem of that chain or
organizations, which makes it a subsystem of that chain is part of a
larger system called the hospitality industry.
What are Linear Systems?
XP
Most systems that are taught to us are linear in nature, which means they are twodimensional, with a start point on the left side and an end point on the right side.
Figure shows a linear process for management and technology processes.
The management perspective of this figure is quite broad, whereas the technology
perspective is somewhat narrow. Management inputs include all the resources that
are used to create a product or service. These could be material resources, human
resources, financial resources, and technology resources. The people, equipment,
technology, and machines convert the raw materials during the transformation
process. The final product or service is the output that results from that process. The
output function always interfaces with a customer or guest directly. An internal
customer is someone who is providing a service for a guest. The external customer is
the guest.
What are Linear Systems (cont)?
XP
Therefore, a worker who provides products and services to another
employee is serving the internal customer, and one who provides them
to the guest is serving the external customer. Everyone in the
organization is serving someone either internally or externally.
The more narrow technology perspective in previous figure
demonstrates the process of information technology and information
systems. IT is a resource consisting of hardware, software, and people.
IS describes the process relationships (networks) of IT. For instance, a
hotel installs a new computer system (hardware and software) at the
front desk; this is an example of IT. The new system interfaces with the
property management system (PMS) that performs many front-office
and back-office functions; this interconnectivity (network) is an example
of IS.
What are Linear Systems (cont)?
XP
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Evolution of Management
Information Systems
XP
The evolution of MIS, from data processing through
enterprise and global networking took a more mechanical
path of development than did total management practice.
Although the practice of management is holistic,
technological developments depended mostly on the
evolution of electronic (mechanistic) systems. Management
reporting processes evolved into decision supports systems
(DSSs) in the 1970s to provide managers with interactive
access to critical information, which they manipulated on the
basis of specific decision-making criteria. In the 1980s this
evolved into end-user computing, which provided enhanced
interactivity with all the members of the organization.
Evolution of Management Information
Systems (cont)
XP
Specialized databases for strategy and policy became available for use
as executive information systems (EISs) in the later 1980s.
Breakthroughs in artificial intelligence (AI) and expert systems (ESs) in
the 1990s resulted in the presence of electronic consultants in areas of
subject matter expertise (SME). These factors contributed to the role of
strategic information systems (SISs) and telecommunications
developments, which have taken us into the enterprise and global
internetworking revolution. Currently, we view MIS from the
standpoints of operations support systems and management support
systems in organizations. Business-related IS activities remain focused
on transaction processing, which involves interactions among support
personnel, end users, and guests of hospitality organizations. Contrary
to the older functions of IS, most current systems focus on collaboration
networks.
REVIEWING INFORMATION SYSTEMS PLANNING,
ANALYSIS,
AND EVALUATION
XP
• The executive-level person in charge of IT and IS for an
organization is called the chief information officer (CIO). In
large organizations the CIO will have a staff of technology
and systems managers and specialist reporting to her.
Specialists include programmers, network managers,
technicians, database administrators, and others with
specific expertise in certain areas of technology and
systems. The CIO is directly responsible for the planning
analysis, implementation, and evaluation of all technology
and systems analysis in a hospitality organization.
IEWING INFORMATION SYSTEMS PLANNING,
ALYSIS,
D EVALUATION (cont)
XP
REVIEWING INFORMATION SYSTEMS PLANNING,
ANALYSIS,
AND EVALUATION (cont)
XP
Systems analysis is nothing more than standard needs analysis applied to computer
systems. Categories of analysis include the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Information needs
System resources
Products
Activities
Capabilities of systems
End users to get the job done
Functional requirements analysis focuses on interfaces and the processing storage,
and control aspects of the system. Systems analysis results in systems
specifications for interfaces, databases, software, hardware, networks, and user
skills.
XP
WEB DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
XP
• A web page is often an interested page including pictures,
background and a lot of information. Each page includes different or
similar information and every web page has its own source code. For
each web page there exist different web addresses which you have
to type it in your web browser to go in this specific page.
• To create a web page, there are some necessary tasks and
fundamental steps which you have to follow to design a good and
nice web page. First of all, is to understand how the web work and
then to be familiar and to get knowledge about HTML, the role of the
server and the importance of the browser. Moreover is to learn how
to construct the web page and how to learn the areas of web design.
Web Application
• Is
– a software system based on technologies and standards of
the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) that provides Web
specific resources such as content and services through a
user interface, the Web browser.
• and encompasses
– everything from a simple Web page that might help a
consumer compute an automobile lease payment to a
comprehensive website that provides complete travel
services for business people and vacationers.;
– included within this category are complete websites,
specialized functionality within websites, and informationprocessing applications that reside on the Internet or on an
Intranet or Extranet.
XP
Web Applications Categories
XP
Document centric Web sites
XP
• Document centric Web sites are the precursor to Web
applications. Web pages are stored on a Web server as
ready‐made, i.e. static, HTML documents and sent to the
Web client in response to a request. These Web pages are
usually updated manually using respective tools. Especially
for Web sites requiring frequent changes or for sites with
huge numbers of pages this is a significant cost factor and
often results in outdated information. Additionally, there is a
danger of inconsistencies, as some content is frequently
represented redundantly on several Web pages for easy
access. The main benefits are the simplicity and stability of
such Web sites and the short response time, as the pages are
already stored on the Web server. Static homepages,
webcasts, and simple web presences for small businesses
belong in this category.
Transactional Web applications
XP
• Transactional Web applications were created to provide
more interactivity, giving the user the possibility of not
only interacting with the application in a read‐only
manner, but also by performing updates on the
underlying content. Considering a tourism information
system this would allow, for example, to update the
content in a decentralized way or make it possible to
book rooms. The prerequisite for this are database
systems that allow efficient and consistent handling of
the increasing amount of content in Web applications
and offer the possibility of structured queries. Online
banking, online shopping, and booking systems belong in
this category.
Social Web
XP
• While originally the Web was characterized by
anonymity, there is an increasing trend towards
a , where people provide their identity to a
(small) community of others with similar
interests. Weblogs or collaborative filtering
systems which serve the purpose of not only
finding related objects of interest but also
finding people with similar interests, belong to
that category of applications.
Ubiquitous Web applications
XP
• Ubiquitous Web applications provide customized services
anytime anywhere and for any device, thus facilitating
ubiquitous access. An example of this would be displaying the
menu of the day on the mobile devices of all users entering a
restaurant between 11 am and 2 pm. For this type of system it
is important to take into account the limitations of mobile
devices (bandwidth, screen size, memory, immaturity of
software, etc.) and the context in which the Web application is
currently being used. Based on this dynamic adjustments
according to the users’ situation can be made. Currently
existing Web applications of this type usually offer a very
limited form of ubiquity only supporting one aspect –either
personalization or location‐aware services or multi‐ platform
delivery.
re Disciplines
XP
The following core disciplines for web design are:
•
•
•
•
Graphic design : How the page looks
Interface design : How the page works
Information design: Organisation of contents
HTML production: Tagging language for web
documents
• Programming: For advance web functionality
• Multimedia: Adding multimedia
re Disciplines (cont)
XP
Graphic Design
How the page looks
•
For decisions regarding
everything in the web page,
i.e. graphics, type, colours,
layout etc.
•
Requires image editing
software, I.e. Adobe
Photoshop
Interface Design
How the page works
•
Requires buttons, links,
navigations, devices etc.as
well as functional
organisations of the page
•
A specialist job
Information Design
Organisation of contents
•
Deals with flowchart,
diagrams,
HTML production
Tagging language for web
documents
•
Creation and
troubleshooting of the
HTML documents
Programming
For advanced web functionality
1.
Additional programming
skills for writing scripts,
programmes and
applications and for
working with database,
servers etc.
Multimedia
Adding multimedia
1.
Incorporating sound, video,
animation and interactivity
2.
Requires an authoring tool,
I.e. Director, Flash
3.
Background in sound and
video production is useful
Web related programming languages
XP
For every web design page, there are some main
programming languages which are:
•
•
•
•
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HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language).
JavaScript
DHTML (Dynamic Hyper Text Markup Language).
XML (Extensible)
Java
The Design of Web Application
XP
• is important because:
– content and function are complex;
– the size of the Web Application encompasses hundreds
of content objects, functions, and analysis classes;
– multiple people become involved in the design;
– the success of the Web Application will have
– a direct impact on the success of the
– business.
• encompasses: content, aesthetics, architecture,
interface, navigation, and component‐level design
issues.
Design Actions
XP
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Design Goals
XP
Simplicity
Consistency
– Content should be constructed consistently
– Graphic design (aesthetics) should present a consistent look
– Architectural design should establish templates that lead to a consistent
hypermedia navigation
– Navigation mechanisms should be used consistently
Identity ‐ The aesthetic, interface, and navigational design of a Web Application must
be consistent with the application domain for which it is to be built.
Robustness ‐ The user expects robust content and functions that are relevant to the
user’s needs.
Navigability ‐ users should be able to understand how to move about the Web
Application without having to search for navigation links or instructions.
Visual appeal ‐ design characteristics (e.g., the look and feel of content, interface
layout, color coordination, the balance of text, graphics and other media, and navigation
mechanisms) contribute to visual appeal.
Compatibility ‐ most Web Applications will be used in a variety of environments (e.g.,
different hardware, Internet connection types, operating systems, and browsers) and
must be designed to be compatible with each.
Design and the
Basic Elements of Hypertext
Documents
XP
Interaction Design
XP
• To answer three generic questions:
– Where am I? The interface should (1) provide an
indication of the Web Application that has been
accessed, and (2) inform users of their location in the
content hierarchy.
– What can I do now? The interface should always help
users understand their current options—what functions
are available, what links are live, what content is
relevant?
– Where have I been, where am I going? The interface
must facilitate navigation. Hence, it must provide a
“map” (implemented in a way that is easy to understand)
of where users have been and what paths they may take
to move elsewhere within the Web Application.
quirements
XP
Hardware:
•
•
Fast computer with enough memory and a large monitor
A scanner and/or digital camera
Software:
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•
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Web page authoring programmes, i.e.
Macromedia Dreamweaver, Adobe GoLive, MS Frontpage
HTML editors, i.e.
Allaire HomeSite (Windows), BBEdit (Mac)
Graphics Software, I.e. Photoshop, ImageReady and Illustrator by Adobe, Macromedia
Fireworks,
JASC Paint Shop Pro
Multimedia Tools, i.e.
Flash & Director by Macromedia, LiveMotion by Adobe
Internet tools, i.e.
Variety of browsers, a file transfer programme (FTP), Telnet (optional)
ood Website
XP
Every Web page needs the following items. Don’t forget that users can enter
via any page on the site, thus, each must be freestanding.
• Content: Text, graphics, photos, video, or audio that combine to create the
desired effect with target stakeholders. Have the material in hand before you
begin or you might find that the site organization needs changing later on and
you’ll have to redo all the navigation bars.
• Title: the text that shows at the top of the user’s browser. Without it the page
reads “untitled” and might not be indexed properly by search engines.
• Navigation scheme: the global links that appear on all pages, the local links to
appear on all subsections, and other important links (such as to business
partners).
• Author’s identity: Logo, name with e-mail link, or other information about who
sponsored the page (not necessarily the same as who designed it).
• Meta tags: HTML tags containing key words for search engine classification.
Good Website (cont)
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•
XP
Site map: the blueprint for site design that if not created will result in repeating much
of the work.
Home page with correct file name: use index.htm or index.html as the name of the
homepage. The Web server will deliver the index file when the user does not specify a
filename. Therefore, you save typing for the user.
Statement of site purpose: words, headlines, graphics, or other elements that clearly
let users know what this site is about.
Create a design template: the home page can be somewhat different, but all inner
pages should have a consistent design. This means fonts, graphics, color schemes, and
so forth should be repeated so that users do not have to relearn where things are on
each page, and so that they know they are on your site at all times. You can accomplish
this by making a great Web page, saving it, and using a copy to start each new page.
Copyright information: Create a page with terms of use or anyone can legally take and
reuse any of your content. Most developers do not try to copyright the HTML coding
unless it is unique.
Contact information: Include an e-mail link or phone so users can contact you. If you
include an e-mail address, answer the e-mail that comes.
Optional features: Other helpful site features include a help page, an FAQ page, and a
search function.
What is a bad design?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
XP
long pages, too much scrolling, boring text
no structure
no navigation
“What is this page about?”
complex (very long) URL’s
“...for ... click here”
“... best viewed with ...”
frames suck(?)

What is a bad design (cont)?
• overwhelmed with multimedia
– big images
– too many images and/or video clips
– obnoxious noise .vs. background music
– boring or aggressive animation
• bad images (poor quality)
• colours, fonts, blink
• cool pages suck(?)
XP
The Importance of Having Images
XP
• A newspaper page with no photos is called gray
• A Web page with no [images] is called
unreadable
– The Web is as much a visible medium as a written
one, and readers are very likely to pass over [web]
pages without pictures
Source: http://courses.help.com
File naming and organization tips
XP
• Use lowercase filenames: use lowercase for all file names with no spaces in the
name: e.g., line.html, index.html, font.html but not My Line.html. Many Web
servers are case sensitive and/or have trouble with spaces in filenames. This will
save lots of time later because you won’t have to recall how you named a file to
make the link work. If you use title case (Like This) you’ll have to match it precisely
in your linking or the links won’t work: easier to make it all lower case.
• Use short filenames: Filenames should always be short because users often type
the filename as part of the URL, and short filenames are easier for them (and you)
to remember. As with all file naming, select names that indicate the file contents.
• Check the file extensions: Different software uses different extension protocols.
HTML files are .htm or .html; graphic files for the Web are .gif, or .jpg; audio files
are .wav, .mid, .snd, or .au; and video formats are .avi, .mov, or .mpeg. You can
also link to Word files (.doc), Exel files (.xls), or Power Point files (.ppt), and all
others. These extensions are created within the respective software, and the file
type can’t be changed by simply changing the extension text. Be sure you are using
the appropriate extension for the task.
e naming and organization tips
nt)
•
•
•
•
XP
Use consistent extensions: Every HTML file must end in either .htm or .html. Do not mix and
match. Either use .htm consistently or .html consistently. Mixing extensions opens up the
likelihood of error: e.g., linking to myfile.htm when you meant to link to myfile.html. If
myfile.htm does not exist, the link will fail and you may scratch your head and wonder why.
Page graphics: HTML code actually tells browsers to find a graphic file and present it as part
of the Web page. Unlike text, graphics are in separate files from the pages in which they
appear. For example, if you had a Web page with text, bullet graphics, an icon, and a menu
bar that is an image, you would have 4 files to make the page display properly. All these
have to be on the server to make it work.
Keep files together: Each Web page consists of an HTML file and usually one or more
graphic files. Make sure that related files are stored in the same folder. Often all HTML files
are stored in one folder while all graphic files are stored in a separate folder. The important
point here is that you need to determine in advance what your file structure will be, develop
using that structure, and send it exactly that way to the server for publishing. This is because
the HTML you code or the page authoring software codes, actually finds the path to the
graphics and codes it that way so browsers can find them. If you move the graphics later,
have fun recoding it all.
Linking to other types of files: You can put a Word file or any other file on a Web server and
link to it from a Web page. These files are not meant to be read by browsers, although IE
will now open Microsoft office files for viewing only (not editing). Many developers link to
Excel or Acrobat .pdf files or others so that users can download and use them independently
of the Web page.
atabase Management
XP
• In commercial enterprises, there are usually several individual databases that are
linked together into a database management system (DBMS). The individual who is
responsible for the administrative functions of a DBMS is called a database
administrator (DBA). A typical DBA is responsible for the development,
interrogation, maintenance, and applications that reside in a database. Usually this
person reports to the chief information officer (CIO), who is the executive – level
person in charge of information systems and information technology for an
organization. The following Figure shows the configuration of a DBMS.
• The first task of the database administrator is development, which includes the
planning, design, and building of each database that ultimately will be linked into a
centralized system. Next, the administrator performs daily maintenance activities
that ensure the effective operation of the DBMS, including updates, archiving,
security, and disk reallocations. Concurrent with the function of maintenance is the
process of writing query programs for interrogation and designing applications that
serve the needs of the end users. Since organizations require more information
and applications over time, the DBMS is a dynamic system that changes and grows
on a continuous basis.
atabase Management
ont)
XP
Database Security
XP
•
Since the database management system is the hub of a hospitality organization,
continuous upgrades are made to the security systems that are in place. One of the
downsides to the technological revolution is the existence of computer hackers,
individuals who practice unauthorized entry into the databases owned by others, often
for destructive purposes. The primary protections against unauthorized database entry
are devices known as firewalls, which consist of codes that grant entry permissions and
flag the trails of entry by different users.
•
One form of destructive action by hackers is to introduce a computer virus into a
database that disables one or more of its functions. A virus consists of coded
instructions that the database recognizes as an execution program designed to
replicate itself continuously, eventually disabling the computers that are networked to
the DBMS. Viruses called worms attempt to burrow into the memory of a database
without attaching themselves to programs. Users unknowingly “spawn” some viruses
onto other networked computers, causing the virus to spread through e-mail address
books over the Internet and affect other database management systems. Database
administrators use antivirus software such as Norton and McAfee programs to detect
and eradicate viruses from computers. When a new version of a virus is introduced,
programmers must write a new virus elimination program updates that are
downloaded periodically by DBAs and other savvy computer users.
OTHER GENERAL – PURPOSE APPLICATION
PROGRAMS
XP
Presentation Software
• Most people who provide professional presentations use computer – generated
slides to provide visual reinforcement of the topics under discussion. Usually the
presenter places the slides on a floppy or compact disk, which is inserted into a
laptop computer at the site of the presentation. The images are projected onto an
auditorium screen through a liquid crystal display (LCD) projector connected to the
laptop computer.
• The software used to prepare and display the slides is called presentation
software. Perhaps the most common presentation software on the market is
Microsoft Corporation’s PowerPoint, which is one of the packages bundled into the
Office software suite. Presentation software is similar to word-processing
software, with the addition of a few multimedia enhancements. The screens are
formatted into templates that permit the user to create text, art, and photo boxes
on each screen. Presentation software also allows the user to add limited
multimedia enhancements such as sound and animation. In addition to using the
software to generate presentation slides, users may import miniature versions of
the templates onto printed documents for publication.
HER GENERAL – PURPOSE APPLICATION
OGRAMS (cont)
XP
E-Mail Software
• Electronic mail (e-mail) software provides the capability for users to send text
messages to other users over networks, including the Internet. In some cases,
e-mail software is provided by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to users who
subscribe to their services, such as the America Online (AOL), Yahoo!, and
Hotmail mailer services. Separate e-mail packages sometimes are purchased by
organizations for use on their networks as well as on the Internet. The default
e-mail program for users of the Internet Explorer browser is called Outlook,
which is produced by the Microsoft Corporation.
• This e-mail program is called a “shared application” because it combines with
the copy of Microsoft Word residing on the user’s computer. Owing to its
popularity, many organizations have converted networked e-mail systems from
packages such as GroupWise to the Outlook program. Individuals may use email to send individualized electronic messages as well as file transfers
containing photos, slides, documents, and Web pages to other networked
users.
HER GENERAL – PURPOSE APPLICATION
OGRAMS (cont)
XP
Web Software
•
A Web page is an electronic document that is designed for viewing on the Internet. These
documents are called Web pages because they reside in files on Internet servers called
websites. “Web” refers to the World Wide Web (WWW), which is the portion of the Internet
that is commonly accessed by users. The programming language used to create Web pages
is called Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), which consists of code used to create
templates for the electronic viewing of pages.
•
A more developed version of HTML called Extensible Markup Language (XML) adds
electronic “tags” to Web page items that expedite the coding process. A person who creates
and maintains pages on a website is referred to as a webmaster. Most webmasters are
familiar with the software options used to generate Web pages, including “Web-editing”
programs. These programs create templates for Web designers to enter text and other
objects and automatically provide conversion into the HTML format. The most popular Webediting programs at the current time include Microsoft’s FrontPage and Dreamweaver.
Professional webmasters are also proficient in the use of programming languages that
create miniature applications attached to Web pages called applets. The commonly used
languages for this purpose and other applications are Java and C++. Individuals with
knowledge of these programs have the ability to develop professional multimedia
publications that include sound, animation, graphics, photos, and video. Many multimedia
producers use sophisticated authoring system software packages such as Macromedia’s
Flash.
OTHER GENERAL – PURPOSE APPLICATION
PROGRAMS (cont)
XP
Desktop Publishing Software
• Desktop publishing software uses templates to provide professionally designed
print materials. The most prominent PC-based desktop publishing software is
called Adobe Acrobat, which creates files is portable document format (.pdf). This
versatile design enables the publication of professionally produced print materials,
such as articles, in a digital form that is both printer- and database- friendly as long
as the user has a copy of Acrobat Reader installed on the computer.
• Acrobat Reader is an example of software that is available to the public at no
charge, a category called freeware. For instance, a user may be conducting
research through a library database. The user may find a full-text article available
in the .pdf (usually noted with a camera icon) format. For users to read the file
containing the article, they must have a copy of the Reader software on the
computer. An icon for downloading of the software is usually available on the site
that hosts the database for users to attain a free copy of the software. Once the
user has downloaded the software, she may read the article and will have options
that include sending the article to a printer or e-mailing the article.
OPERATING SYSTEM SOFTWARE
XP
• The most commonly used type of application-specific program is called an
operating system. Operating systems are software packages that manage all the
functions of mainframe computers, midrange computers and microcomputers.
They handle tasks such as computer start-up/shut-down, utilities, peripheral
recognition, disk allocation, and all the other tasks that make the computer
perform the functions required by the user. As opposed to application programs
that are loaded onto the computer by the user, operating systems are written to
the computer’s hard disk by the manufacturer. For this reason, the market is
dominated by just a few versions of operating systems. This works to the user’s
advantage as there is no need to learn new operating systems when using different
brands of computers.
• The dominant system that runs mainframe and midrange computers is called the
Unix operating system, and the system that runs most microcomputers is called
the Disk Operating System (DOS). Other operating systems that can be used in
personal computers include the Linux and OS/2 versions; however, these systems
are used in only a small percentage of manufactured computers. Early computer
users were required to learn text-based command in both DOS and Unix in order to
use large and small computer systems.
OPERATING SYSTEM SOFTWARE
(cont)
XP
• The underlying operating system on a computer today is invisible to
the user because of the development of the graphical user interface.
The GUI is a system overlay that appears in the form of windows on
the user’s monitor and permits navigation of the computer’s
operating system with the point-and-click features of a mouse.
• The best known graphical user interface is appropriately called
Windows, which is produced by the Microsoft Corporation. The
Windows operating system runs virtually all commonly used personal
computers, with the exception of palmtop models that use varieties
of personal information manager (PIM) operating software. Most
individuals upload information from their palmtop computers into
larger personal computers through a process of hot synchronization
(hot-synch), permitting the files to be recognized by applications that
are driven by the Windows operating system.
Three Main Functions of Operating
Systems
XP
•
Three functions are performed by operating systems: resource management, file
management, and task management. Resource management involves the hardware and
software in the computer system. The operating system manages the interfaces of input
devices such as keyboards and output devices such as the monitor. Peripherals such as
printers are other resources that the operating system manages. When it comes to resource
management, the practices include device/software recognition, interfaces, and updates.
Small programs contained in the operating system called utilities assist the user in managing
the resources (hardware and software) that are part of the computer.
•
Certain computer resources are used to write information files, which is the function of each
application software program. The operating system enables file storage, maintenance, and
retrieval from the hard drive as well as other drives connected to the computer. When
application software is loaded onto a computer disk, the operating system places it in a
category called program files. One of the program files is designated to execute or launch
each application, which is appropriately noted as an execution file. Once the execution file is
activated, it will run the application by accessing other files within the software with the
help of the operating system. The operating system is also responsible for application
program exit, file save function, and disk allocation of newly created application files in
designated folders such as “My Documents” on a Windows system. The operating system
keeps track of file locations on disks as well as remaining disk space for future use through a
task called a disk scan.
Other Operating System
Maintenance Tasks
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•
A number of other maintenance tasks are performed by the operating system. The Windows
operating system permits more than one task to be performed at the same time; this is
referred to as multitasking. Other tasks include starting up the computer on demand
(booting), restarting when necessary (rebooting), and executing the procedure to turn the
computer off safely (shutdown). When a user boots the computer, it automatically runs
through a program of diagnostics used to locate programs, file locations, and other
functions. While the computer is running, it will notify the user of any irregularities in the
operation through “error messages”. If there is an unexpected shutdown, such as a power
loss, the operating system will perform additional diagnostics such as reboot that will check
for irregularities in the disk allocations or file maintenance. Also, the operating system may
save interrupted application program files, permitting the user to recover lost work.
•
In essence, the computer operating system coordinates all the resources, files, and tasks
from start-up through shutdown in a manner that is mostly unobtrusive to the user. The first
version (3.1) of the Windows operating system was created in the early 1990s, and the most
recent version used in new computers is called Windows XP, an intuitive and sophisticated
operating system. The system is intuitive in the sense that is uses a form of logic to predict
the needs of users based on their activities while using the computer. Also, the XP program
contains a few breakthroughs that permit users to create multimedia projects with
specialized application programs such as Microsoft Producer. These developments provide
evidence that computer software is entering a new stage of program language
development.
ogramming Language
evelopment
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• There has been an evolution of software trends over the last 40 years of
computing. In earlier times, users wrote their own programs for computers
by using machine languages such as binary code, which some consider the
first generation of computer programming. The tedious task of
programming in machine language was eliminated with the creation of
assembler translators, which converted code into machine symbols,
marking the second generation of programming languages. In the third
generation, generic operating systems and high-level codes that used
languages such as Pascal, FORTRAN, Basic, and COBOL resulted in packaged
programs.
• Today we may be reaching the fourth generation of program language
development with the proliferation of object – oriented languages and
natural language programming, such as Visual Basic, SQL, and Oracle, used
to program databases. Future language assistance may be made available
to programmers through technologies such as fuzzy logic, neural networks,
and artificial intelligence.
BUSINESS SOFTWARE FOR HOSPITALITY
ORGANIZATIONS
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The rapid development of computer programming
languages has had a direct effect on the business
aspects of hospitality management. The business
aspects of our business are the interactions and
interfaces that are similar to functions contained
within other business enterprises. Business systems
include
transaction
processing,
information
communications, and decision-making support.
Proprietary Systems and Open
Platforms
XP
The specifics of transaction processing are discussed in other chapters
of this text. However, from a generic perspective, it should be noted
that privately owned packages called proprietary systems were the
transaction-processing formats of the past. The strategic problem with
this thinking is that proprietary packages do not interface with other
computerized functions. The result within a hotel, for instance, could be
the acquisition of property management systems, point-of-sale systems,
catering systems, and accounting systems that do not communicate
with each other. The purpose of using technology in business is to
create holistically interfaced systems for all business-related functions.
Today’s technology provides the means to accomplish this objective
through the use of generic foundations of business application
programs called open platforms.
Proprietary Systems and Open
Platforms (cont)
XP
The platform is the architecture that supports the hardware and application
software through its operating systems within a business enterprise. An open
platform is one that permits these systems to interface with each other. An
example would be an open platform used to support the business systems of a
hotel. In this case the hub may be the property management system, which is
interfaced with the point-of-sale system that supports retail outlets other than
the front-office area. The hub (property management system) also interfaces
with the accounting systems on the back end (accounting office functions).
Proprietary systems are designed to be freestanding processors in that they
are not intended to communicate with any other system. The goal of business
application systems is to provide connectivity among all subsystems to
enhance organizational communication flows and managerial decision-making
support. An example of enhance communication flows is provided by software
applications that are shared among users in an organization to work
collaboratively on projects.
Rent or Buy?
XP
With the rapid rate of software program development, many hospitality
organizations are making strategic choices to lease or rent computer
software through outside companies known as application software
providers (ASPs) to handle business functions. The advantage of this
strategy is that the hospitality organization does not purchase the
software and the ASP provides new versions as they become available.
This allows the organization to avoid investing in technology that will
become outdated rapidly and require new investments for upgraded
software. However, some organizations prefer to own the software
used in their business systems. Regardless of preference, the strategic
choice to own or lease these applications should be considered part of
the technology planning process.
Decision Support and Expert Systems
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• Decision support system (DSS): supports
decision making
– Relies on models to produce tables
– Extrapolates data to predict outcomes
– Helps answer “What if?” questions
• Expert system (ES): supports knowledgeintensive decision making
– Uses artificial intelligence techniques
– Can preserve the knowledge of retiring experts
55
Man
agem
ent
Infor
mati
on
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE SOFTWARE
XP
Artificial intelligence (AI) comes from the disciplines
of computer science, biology, psychology, linguistics,
mathematics, and engineering. The goal of AI is to
create machines with human physical and mental
abilities (reasoning, learning, and problem solving). AI
is not a new technology application; however, it was
not used widely until recently, as cost and machine
power limitations prevented the development of its
application for practical uses.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE SOFTWARE
(cont)
XP
Some of the aspects of AI are listed below:
•Neural Networks: The closest electrical simulation of an organic system; consist of
networked processors that interact as transporters and have the capacity for learning
based on identification of patterns and relationships.
•Fuzzy logic: Processors that can perform reasoning based on inferences and incomplete
data (the opposite of crisp data) in response to SQL inquiries.
•Virtual Reality: Computer-simulated reality based on multisensory input and output
devices to create undetected simulated environments through telepresence illusions.
•Intelligent agents: Applets that perform tasks for end users by using a built-in knowledge
base about processes. Application wizards are good examples.
•Expert Systems: Knowledge-based systems that possess expertise in a single discipline.
Users pose questions and problems, and the expert system provide solutions.
•Knowledge base: The information contained by the system in factual and heuristic form.
•Inference engine: Provides analysis tools for if/then reasoning and adds experiences to
the knowledge base through repetition.
•The expert shell: Programmed by a knowledge engineer and a logic programmer.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE SOFTWARE
(cont)
XP
All these applications have been available since the early 1990s.
Although chips have been built into commonly used machines and
appliances that use some of these technologies (automobiles, for
instance), the more powerful applications have been prevented from
reaching marketplaces by hardware constraints. Today, however, with
more powerful microprocessors and lower hardware costs, researchers
are considering broad applications of these technologies. The
implications for the hospitality/tourism industry over the next 10 years
will be limited only by decision makers’ imaginations. This is a
wonderful time for technology because these technologies permit
hospitality managers to use their creative talents to envision and
develop applications in conjunction with technical experts.