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Biology Study Guide 1st Semester
Science
•
An organized way of using evidence to
learn about the natural world.
Observation
•
The process of gathering information about
events or process in a careful, orderly way.
Data
•
The information gathered from an
observation, or experiment.
Inference
•
A logical interpretation of events based on
prior knowledge or experiences.
Hypothesis
•
A proposed scientific explanation for a set
of observations.
Spontaneous Generation
•
Life arising from nonliving matter. Frog and
fish come from mud in a pond.
Controlled Experiment
•
A type of experiment where only one
variable is changed at a time.
Manipulated Variable
•
A variable in an experiment that is
deliberately changed.
Responding Variable
•
A variable that is observed and that
changes in response to the manipulated
variable.
Theory
•
Evidence from numerous investigations
build up of data from investigations.
Biology
•
The science that employs the scientific
method to study living things. A way to
explain the natural world.
Homeostasis
•
Living things maintain a stable internal
environment.
Sexual Reproduction
•
Cells from two different parents unite to
form the first cell of the new organism.
Asexual Reproduction
•
When a single parent produces offspring
that are identical to itself.
Metabolism
•
The combination of chemical reactions
through which an organism builds up or
breaks down materials.
Stimulus
•
A signal to which an organism responds.
Metric System
•
A decimal system of measurement whose
units are based on certain physical
standards and are scaled on multiples of
10.
Microscope
•
Devices that produce magnified images of
structures that are too small to see with
the unaided eye.
Compound Light Microscope
•
Allows light to pass through the specimen
and uses two lenses to form an image.
Electronic Microscope
•
Use beams of electrons, rather than light,
to produce images of specimen.
Cell Culture
•
Cells that are able to reproduce, outside of
the organism.
Cell Fractionation
•
To separate the different cell parts.
Atom
•
Basic unit of matter.
Neutron
• A neutral charged particle of an atom located
in the nucleusl
Nucleus
•
Strong forces bind protons and neutrons
together in a central space in the atom
Electron
•
A negatively charges particle with 1/1840
the mass of a proton.
Element
•
A pure substance that consists entirely of
one type of atom.
Isotope
•
Atoms of the same element that differ in
the number of neutrons they contain.
Compound
•
A substance formed by the chemical
combination of two or more elements in
definite proportions.
Ionic Bond
•
Formed when one or more electrons are
transferred from one atom to another.
Ion
•
•
•
Positively and negatively charged atoms.
Cation are + charged, lost electrons
Anions are – charged, gained electrons
Covalent Bond
•
Forms when electrons are shared between
atoms.
Molecule
•
The smallest unit of most compounds.
Van Der Waals Force
•
Chemists call such intermolecular forces of
attractions between atoms.
Cohesion
•
An attraction between molecules of the
same substance.
Adhesion
•
An attraction between molecules of
different substances.
Mixture
•
A material composed of two or more
elements or compounds that are physically
mixed together, but not chemically
combined.
Solution
•
In a mixture where one thing is dissolved in
another.
Solute
•
The substance that is dissolved.
Solvent
•
•
The substance in which the solute
dissolves.
The univeral solvent is water
Suspension
•
Mixtures of water and non-dissolved
material.
pH Scale
•
•
To indicate the concentration of Hydronium
(H+) ions in a solution.
The reciprocal log of the hydronium ion
concentration
Acid
•
•
Any compound that forms H ions in a
solution.
Sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid,
acetic acid
Base
•
•
A compound that produces hydroxide ions
in a solution.
Sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide.
Magnesium hydroxide
Buffer
•
Weak acids or bases that can react with
strong acids or bases to prevent sharp,
sudden changes.
Monomer
•
•
Smaller units, base units
Saccharide make up starches, nucleotides
make up Nucleic acids, amino acids make
up proteins
Polymer
•
Monomers that are joined together, to
form a larger compound
Lipid
•
Made mostly from carbon and hydrogen
atoms.
Nucleic Acid
•
Macromolecules containing hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus.
Nucleotide
•
Consists of three parts
–
–
–
A 5 carbon sugar
A phosphate group
A nitrogenous base.
Ribonucleic Acid
•
RNA contains the sugar ribose.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
•
DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose.
Protein
•
Macromolecules that contain nitrogen as
well as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Amino Acid
•
Proteins that are polymers of molecules.
Chemical Reaction
•
A process that changes or transforms one
set of chemicals into another.
Reactant
•
The elements or compounds that enter into
a chemical reaction.
Product
•
Elements or compounds produced by a
chemical reaction.
Activation Energy
•
Energy that is needed to get a reaction
started.
Catalyst
•
A substance that speeds up the rate of a
chemical reaction.
Enzyme
•
Proteins that act as biological catalysts.
Substrate
•
The reactants of enzyme catalyzed
reactions.
Cell
•
The basic units of life.
Cell Theory
•
A fundamental concept of biology.
Nucleus
•
A large membrane enclosed structure that
contains the cells genetic material in the
form of DNA.
Eukaryote
•
Cells that contain nuclei.
Prokaryote
•
Cells that do not contain nuclei.
Organelle
•
Organs that can be all different sizes and
types.
Cytoplasm
•
The portion of the cell outside the nucleus.
Nuclear Envelope
•
Composed of two membranes.
Chromatin
•
The granular material you can see in the
nucleus.
Chromosome
•
When a cell divides the chromatin
condenses to form a chromosome.
Nucleolus
•
Where the assembly of ribosomes begins.
Ribosome
•
Small particles of RNA and protein found
throughout the cytoplasm.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
•
The site where lipid components of the cell
membrane are assembled, along with
proteins and other materials that are
exported from the cell.
Golgi Apparatus
•
To modify, sort, and package proteins
storage in the cell or secretion outside the
cell.
Lysosome
•
Small organelles filled with enzymes.
Vacuole
•
Stores materials such as water, salts,
proteins, and carbohydrates.
Mitochondrion
•
Organelles that convert the chemical
energy stored in food into compounds that
are more convenient for the cell to use.
Chloroplast
•
Organelles that capture the energy from
sunlight and convert it into chemical
energy.
Cytoskeleton
•
A network of protein filaments that helps
the cell to maintain its shape.
Centriole
•
•
Located near the nucleus and helps to
organize cell division.
Composed of 9 microtubules
Cell Membrane
• Regulates what enters and leaves the cell and
also provides protection and support
Cell Wall
• A strong supporting layer around the
membrane, that is water proof and gives the
cell a ridged structure.
• In plants cell this is made of cellulose
• In fungi cells this is made of chitin.
Lipid Bilayer
• a doubled layer sheet that makes up the cell
membrane
Concentration
• The mass of solute in a given volume of
solution or mall/volume
Diffusion
• Where the particles are even distributed
within a space or material.
• Goes from an area of higher concentration to
an area of lower concentration
Equilibrium
• A concentration of the solute is the same
throughout a system
Osmosis
• The passage of water through a selectively
permeable membrane form an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration.
Isotonic
• The solution to cell ratio has equal water
molecules and the cell.
• Ringers solution, Human Physiological saline,
eye drops-Same concentration of water
molecules as the cells have.
Hypertonic
The solution to cell ratio has more water
molecules than the cell.
The cell will allow water to flow in and burst.
Hypotonic
• The solution to cell ratio has fewer water
molecules than the cell.
• Cell will shrink due to diffusion trying to
balance out the water molecules.
Facilitated Diffusion
• Diffusion of molecules, such as glucose, across
a membrane using a protein carrier molecule
Active Transport
• Cells move materials in the opposite direction
against concentration differences. Using cell
energy, a carrier molecule
Endocytosis
• The process of taking material into the cell by
means of infoldings or pockets of the cell
membrane
Phagocytosis
• Extensions of cytoplasm surround a particle
and package it within a food vacuole.
Engulfing
Pinocytosis
• Process by which a cell takes in liquid from the
surrounding environment. Cell drinking
Exocytosis
• Process by which a cell releases large amounts
of material
Cell Specialization
• The process in which cells develop in different
ways to preform different tasks
Tissue
• Group of similar cells that preform a particular
function
Organ
• Group of tissues that work together to
preform closely related functions.
Organ System
• Group of organs that work together to
preform a specific function
• 12 human body organ systems. Nervous,
endocrine, respiratory, digestive, reproductive,
excretory, skeletal, muscular, intergumentary
(skin), immune, circulatory, special senses.
Cell Division
• Process by which a cell divides into two new
daughter cells.
• Process that produces two clones of the
original parent.
• Produces identical cells very quickly.
Cytokinesis
• Division of the cytoplasm during the last step
of cell division
Chromatids
• One of two identical sister parts of a
duplicated chromosome
Centromere
• Area where the chromatids of a chromosome
are attached together
Cell Cycle
• Series of events that cells go through as they
grow and divide
• G-1-interphase, cell does most of it daily work
• S-1-chromosomes duplicate
• G-2-the rest of the cells oprganelles gear up
for mitosis
• M-1-Mitosis
• Cytokinesis
Centriole
• Area where the chromatids of a chromosome
are attached to the spindle.
Spindle
• Fanlike microtubule structure that helps
separate the chromosomes during mitosis
• Only found in animal cells
Cyclin
• One of a family of closely related proteins that
regulate the cell cycle in eukaryotic cells
Cancer
• Disorder in when some of the body’s own cells
lose the ability to control growth
• Cells growing out of control
Genetics
• Scientific study of heredity, how traits are
passed down from one generation to the next.
Fertilization
• Process in sexual reproduction in which male
and female reproductive cells join to form a
new cell (zygote).
True-breeding
• Term used to describe organisms that produce
offspring identical to themselves if allowed to
self pollinate
Trait
• Specific characteristic that varies from one
individual to another
Hybrid
• Off spring of crosses between parents with
different traits
Gene
• Sequence of DNA that codes for a protein and
thus determines a trait
Allele
• One of a number of different forms of a gene
• The ways that a gene may be expressed.
Segregation
• Separation of alleles during gamete formation
Gamete
• Specialized cell involved in sexual
reproduction
Probability
• Likely hood something’s going to happen
Punnett Square
• Diagram showing the gene combination that
might result from a genetic cross
Homozygous
• Terms used to refer to an organism that has
two identical alleles for a particular trait
Heterozygous
• Term used to refer to an organism that has
two different alleles for the same trait
Phenotype
• Physical characteristics of an organism
Genotype
• Genetic makeup of an organism
Independent Assortment
• Independent segregation of genes during the
formation of gametes
Incomplete Dominance
• Situation in which one allele is not completely
dominant over another
Codominance
• Situation in which both alleles of a gene
contribute to the phenotype of the organism
Multiple Alleles
• 3 or more alleles of the same gene
Polygenic Traits
• Trait controlled by 2 or more genes
Homologous
• Term used to refer to chromosomes that each
have a corresponding chromosome from the
opposite sex parent
Diploid
• Term used to refer to a cell that contains both
sets of homologous chromosomes
Haploid
• Term used to refer to a cell that contains only
a single set of chromosomes and therefore
only a single set of genes
Meiosis
• Process by which the number of
chromosomes per cell is cut in half through
the separation of homologous chromosome in
a diploid cell
Tetrad
• Structure containing 4 chromatids that forms
during meiosis
Crossing-over
• Process in which homologous chromosomes
exchange portions of their chromatids diring
meiosis
Gene Map
• Diagram showing the relative locations of
each known gene on a particular chromosome
Karyotype
• Photograph of chromosomes grouped in order
in pairs
Sex Chromosomes
• One of the two chromosomes that determine
an individual’s sex
Autosome
• Chromosome that is not a sex chromosome
Pedigree
• Chart that shows the relationships within a
family
Sex-linked Gene
• Gene located on the x or y chromosome
Non Disjunction
• Error in meiosis in which homologous
chromosomes fail to separate, either
Metaphase I or II. Resulting in either a
monosomy or a trisomy in an offspring
Trisomy
• The individual has an extra chromosome due
in most cases to nondisjunction
• Trisomy 21 is an example
Triploidy
• The individual has a one complete extra set of
chromosomes.
• Organism would have a 3n chromosome
number-Human 2n 46 chromosomes, 3n
would be 69 chromosomes
Monosomy
• A situation where an organism has one less
chromosome.
• Turner Syndrome-X0
DNA Fingerprinting
• Analysis of sections of DNA that have little or
no known function
Taxonomy
• Discipline of classifying organisms and
assigning each organism a universally
accepted name
Binomial nomenclature
• Classification system in which each species is
assigned a two part scientific name
Genus
• A group of similar species that all have similar
traits
Taxon
• A species or grouping in classification
Family
• Group of genera that share many
characteristics
Order
• Group of similar families
Class
• Group of similar orders
Phylum
• Group of closely related classes
Kingdom
• A large taxonomic group, consisting of closely
related phyla
Phylogeny
• The study of evolutionary relationships among
organisms
Evolutionary Classification
• Method of grouping organisms together
according to their evolutionary history
Derived Character
• Characteristic that appears in recent parts of a
lineage
Cladogram
• Diagram that shows the evolutionary
relationships among a group of organisms
Molecular Clocks
• Model that uses DNA comparisons to estimate
the length of time that two species have been
evolving independently
Domain
• Most inclusive taxonomic category; larger
than a kingdom
Bacteria
• Domain of unicellular prokaryotes that have
cell walls containing peptidoglycan
Eubacteria
• Kingdom of unicellular prokaryotes whose cell
walls are made up of peptidoglycan
Archaea
• Domain of unicellular prokaryotes that have a
cell wall that does not contain peptidoglycan
Archaebacteria
• Kingdom of unicellular prokaryotes whose cell
walls that do not contain peptidoglycan
Eukarya
• Domain of all organisms whose cells have
nuclei including protests plants fungi
Protista
• Kingdom composed of eukaryotes that are not
classified as plants, animals, or fungi
Fungi
• Kingdom composed of heterotrophs; many
obtain energy and nutrients from dead
organic matter
Plantae
• Kingdom of multicellular photosynthetic
autotrophs that have cell walls containing
cellulose
Animalia
• Kingdom of multicellular eukaryotic
heterotrophs whose cells do not have cell
walls